According to theLandnámabók, an ancient manuscript, thesettlement of Iceland began in 874 AD, when theNorwegian chieftainIngólfr Arnarson became the island's first permanent settler.[16] In following centuries, Norwegians and to a lesser extent otherScandinavians, immigrated to Iceland, bringing with themthralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) ofGaelic origin. The island was governed as anindependent commonwealth under the native parliament, theAlthing, one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. After aperiod of civil strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into theKalmar Union along with the kingdoms ofDenmark andSweden, coming underde factoDanish rule upon its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introducedLutheranism by force in 1550,[17] and theTreaty of Kiel formally ceded Iceland to Denmark in 1814.
Norsemen landing in Iceland – a 19th-century depiction byOscar Wergeland
TheLandnámabók namesNaddodd (Old Norse:Naddoðr) as the firstNorseman to reach Iceland in the ninth century, having gotten lost while sailing from Norway to theFaroe Islands. He gave the island its first name ofSnæland (English:Snowland). The second explorer to arrive was the SwedishGarðar Svavarsson, who circumnavigated the island and named itGarðarshólmur (English:Garðar's Isle) after himself.[23]
The island's present name originated fromFlóki Vilgerðarson, the first Norseman to intentionally travel to Iceland. According to theSagas of Icelanders, Flóki coined the name after he climbed a mountain, despondent after a harsh winter in present-dayVatnsfjörður, and saw anice cap.[24] The notion that Iceland's settlers chose that name to discourage competing settlements is most likely a myth.[24]
Swedish Viking explorerGarðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island.[27] He stayed during the winter and built a house inHúsavík. Garðar departed the following summer, but one of his men,Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, and he and his slaves became the first documented permanent residents of Iceland.[28][29]
The Norwegian-Norse chieftainIngólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-dayReykjavík in 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and theirthralls, many of whom wereIrish orScottish.[30] By 930, mostarable land on the island had been claimed; theAlthing, a legislative and judicial assembly was initiated to regulate theIcelandic Commonwealth. The lack of arable land also served as an impetus to thesettlement of Greenland starting in 986.[31] The period of these early settlements coincided with theMedieval Warm Period, when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century.[32] At this time, about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day.[33]Christianity was adoptedby consensus around 999–1000, althoughNorse paganism persisted among segments of the population for some years afterward.[34]
TheIcelandic Commonwealth, established in the 10th century, faced internal strife during theAge of the Sturlungs (c. 1220–1264). This period was marked by violent conflicts among chieftains, notably the Sturlung family, leading to the weakening of the Commonwealth's political structure.[35] The culmination of the struggles resulted in the signing of the Old Covenant (Gamli sáttmáli) in 1262–1264, bringingIceland under Norwegian rule.[36]
Environmental challenges further impactedmedieval Icelandic society.[37] Upon settlement, approximately 25–40% of Iceland was forested. However, extensive deforestation occurred as forests were cleared for timber, firewood, and to create grazing land for livestock. This led to significant soil erosion and a decline in arable land, exacerbating the difficulties of sustaining agriculture in Iceland's harsh climate.[38] Agriculture during this period was predominantly pastoral, focusing on livestock such as sheep, cattle, and horses. While early settlers cultivated barley, the cooling climate from the 12th century onwards made grain cultivation increasingly difficult. TheLittle Ice Age began around 1300 bringing colder and more unpredictable weather, further shortening growing seasons and making farming more challenging.[39][40]
TheBlack Death reached Iceland in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495, with devastating effects.[41] The first outbreak is estimated to have killed 50–60% of the population, while the second resulted in a 30–50% mortality rate. These pandemics significantly reduced the population, leading to social and economic disruptions.[42]
In 1380,Olaf II of Denmark became King of Norway on his father's death. Denmark and Norway were thus united in personal union and ruled from Denmark; this was further solidified with the formation of theKalmar Union in 1397. Through it Iceland, as a Norwegian possession, came to be ruled by Denmark.
Ósvör, a replica of an old fishing outpost outsideBolungarvík
Around the middle of the 16th century, as part of theProtestant Reformation, KingChristian III of Denmark began to imposeLutheranism on all his subjects.Jón Arason, the last Icelandic Catholic bishop, and two of his sons were beheaded in 1550. Iceland then became officially Lutheran, and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion.
A map of Iceland published in the early 17th century byGerardus Mercator
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposedharsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. In the summer of 1627,Barbary Pirates committed the events known locally as theTurkish Abductions, in which hundreds of residents were taken into slavery in North Africa and dozens killed; this was the only invasion in Icelandic history to have casualties.[43][44] The1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed a quarter to a third of the population.[45][46] In 1783 theLaki volcano erupted, with devastating effects.[47] In the years following the eruption, known as theMist Hardships (Icelandic:Móðuharðindin), over half of all livestock in the country died. Around a quarter of the population starved to death in the ensuingfamine.[48]
After theNapoleonic Wars in 1814, Denmark-Norway broke up into two separate kingdoms via theTreaty of Kiel, but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to theNew World, particularly to the region ofGimli, Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to asNew Iceland. About 15,000 people emigrated out of a total population of 70,000.[49]
A national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired byromantic andnationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership ofJón Sigurðsson, based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by theFjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, poet and clergymanMatthías Jochumsson wrote the lyrics of "Lofsöngur," which became the Icelandicnational anthem. ComposerSveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson wrote the music.
In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. That was expanded in 1904, andHannes Hafstein served as the firstMinister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet.
1918–1944: independence and the Kingdom of Iceland
TheDanish–Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognized Iceland as a fully sovereign and independent state in apersonal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark carry out on its behalf certain defence and foreign affairs matters, subject to consultation with the Althing. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of theKingdom of Iceland. Iceland's legal position became comparable to those of countries belonging to the Commonwealth of Nations, such as Canada, whose sovereign is KingCharles III.
During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After theGerman occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of its own defence and foreign affairs.[50] A month later, British armed forces conductedOperation Fork, the invasion and occupation of the country, violating Icelandicneutrality.[51] In 1941, the Government of Iceland, friendly to Britain, invited the then-neutral United States to take over its defence so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere.[50]
A British warship,HMS Scylla, (right) collides with Icelandic coast guard vesselICGV Óðinn in the Atlantic Ocean during theThird Cod War.
On 31 December 1943, theDanish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favor of the new republican constitution.[52] Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, withSveinn Björnsson as its first president.
In 1946, the U.S. Defense Force left Iceland. The nation formally became a member ofNATO on 30 March 1949, amiddomestic controversy and riots. On 5 May 1951, a defense agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as theIceland Defence Force and remained throughout theCold War. The U.S. withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006.
Iceland prospered during the Second World War. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantialeconomic growth, driven by the industrialization of the fishing industry and the U.S.Marshall Plan program, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at US$209, with war-ravagedNetherlands a distant second at US$109).[53][54]Vigdís Finnbogadóttir assumed Iceland's presidency on 1 August 1980, making her the first elected female head of state in the world.[55]
The 1970s were marked by theCod Wars, which were several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 nmi (370 km) offshore. Iceland hosted asummit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States PresidentRonald Reagan and Soviet PremierMikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps towardsnuclear disarmament. A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognize the independence ofEstonia,Latvia, andLithuania as theybroke away from theUSSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed a foreign policy oriented towards humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions inBosnia,Kosovo, andIraq.[56]
Iceland joined theEuropean Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001 when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise great amounts ofexternal debt, contributing to a 32 percent increase in Iceland'sgross national income between 2002 and 2007.[57][58]
In 2003–2007, after the privatization of the banking sector under the government ofDavíð Oddsson, Iceland moved towards having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services.[59] It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world, but was hit hard by amajor financial crisis.[59] The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009.[60]
After the 2021 parliamentaryelection, the new government was, just like the previous government, a tri-party coalition of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement, headed by Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir.[67] In April 2024, Bjarni Benediktsson of the Independence party succeeded Katrín Jakobsdóttir as prime minister.[68] In November 2024, centre-leftSocial Democratic Alliance became the biggest party in asnap election, meaning Social DemocraticKristrun Frostadottir became the next Prime Minister of Iceland.[69]
Iceland is at the juncture of the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean. The main island is entirely south of theArctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island ofGrímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes63 and68°N, and longitudes25 and13°W.
Iceland is closer tocontinental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest toGreenland (290 kilometres; 155 nautical miles), an island of North America. Iceland is generally included in Europe for geographical, historical, political, cultural, linguistic, and practical reasons.[70][71][72][73] Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest bodies of land in Europe are theFaroe Islands (420 km; 225 nmi);Jan Mayen Island (570 km; 310 nmi);Shetland and theOuter Hebrides, both about 740 km (400 nmi); and the Scottish mainland andOrkney, both about 750 km (405 nmi). The nearest part of Continental Europe is mainland Norway, about 970 km (525 nmi) away, while mainland North America is 2,070 km (1,120 nmi) away, at the northern tip ofLabrador.
Three typical Icelandic landscapes
Iceland is the18th-largest island in the world, and the second-largest island in Europe, smaller than Great Britain and bigger than Ireland. The main island covers 101,826 km2 (39,315 sq mi), but the entire country is 103,000 km2 (40,000 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% istundra. Iceland contains about 30 minor islands, including the lightly populated Grímsey and theVestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated.[74] The largest lakes areÞórisvatn reservoir: 83–88 km2 (32–34 sq mi) andÞingvallavatn: 82 km2 (32 sq mi); other important lakes includeLagarfljót andMývatn.Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at 248 m (814 ft).[75] Geologically, Iceland is a part of theMid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which theoceanic crust spreads and forms new crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above amantle plume, causing Iceland to besubaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between theEurasian Plate and theNorth American Plate, and Iceland was created byrifting andaccretion through volcanism along the ridge.[76]
A geologically young land at 16 to 18 million years old, Iceland is the surface expression of theIceland Plateau, alarge igneous province forming as a result of volcanism from theIceland hotspot and along theMid-Atlantic Ridge, the latter of which runs right through it.[81][82] This means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes includingHekla,Eldgjá,Herðubreið, andEldfell.[83] The volcanic eruption ofLaki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population.[84] In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Africa and Asia for several months afterwards, and affected climates in other areas.[85]
Iceland has manygeysers, includingGeysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famousStrokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again aftera series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.[86]
With the widespread availability ofgeothermal power and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls forhydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity. The island is composed primarily ofbasalt, a low-silica lava associated witheffusive volcanism, as has also occurred inHawaii. Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such asrhyolite andandesite. Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with about 30 active volcanic systems.[87]
Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named afterSurtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968.[77] Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island.[88] The country has approximatly30 active volcanic systems. Within each are volcano-tectonic fissure systems, and many, but not all of them, also have at least onecentral volcano (mostly in the form of astratovolcano, sometimes of ashield volcano with amagma chamber underneath). Several classifications of the systems exist, for example there is one of 30 systems,[89]: 10 and one of 34 systems, with the later currently being used in Iceland itself.[90]
The climate of Iceland's coast issubarctic. The warmNorth Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in the world with similar climates include theAleutian Islands, theAlaska Peninsula, andTierra del Fuego, although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, with the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.[91]
The climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter, and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the aridest. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than in the south. The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was −38 °C (−36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 26.2 °C (79.2 °F) on 30 July 2008, and −24.5 °C (−12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918.[citation needed]
Due toclimate change, Iceland is experiencing fasterglacial retreat, changing vegetation patterns, and shifting marine ecosystems.[92] Iceland's retreating glaciers have global and local consequences. Melting of Iceland's glaciers could raise sea levels by one centimeter (0.39 in),[93] which could lead to erosion and flooding worldwide.[94]
When the island was first settled, it was extensively forested, with around 30% of the land covered in trees. In the late 12th century,Ari the Wise described it in theÍslendingabók as "forested from mountain to sea shore".[95] Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limitedspecies diversity. The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber.[96]Deforestation, climatic deterioration during theLittle Ice Age, and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due toerosion. Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three-quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) is affected by soil erosion; 18,000 km2 (6,900 sq mi) is affected to a degree serious enough to make the land useless.[95] Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The Icelandic Forest Service and other forestry groups promote large-scale reforestation in the country. Due to the reforestation efforts, the forest cover of Iceland has increased sixfold since the 1990s. That helps to offset carbon emissions, prevent sandstorms, and increase the productivity of farms.[97] The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests includeintroduced species.[96] The tallest tree in Iceland is asitka spruce planted in 1949 inKirkjubæjarklaustur; it was measured at 25.2 m (83 ft) in 2013.[98] Algae includingChondrus crispus,Phyllphora truncata,Phyllophora crispa, and others have been recorded from Iceland.[99]
Animals
TheArctic fox was the only land mammal in Iceland before the arrival of humans.
The only native land mammal when humans arrived was theArctic fox,[96] which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. No native or free-living reptiles or amphibians are on the island.[100]
The animals of Iceland include theIcelandic sheep,cattle,chickens,goats, the sturdyIcelandic horse, and theIcelandic Sheepdog, all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox,mink, mice, rats, rabbits, andreindeer.Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling fromGreenland on icebergs, but no Icelandic populations exist.[101] In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month.[102]Marine mammals include thegrey seal (Halichoerus grypus) andharbour seal (Phoca vitulina). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and thefishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for roughly half of the country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life.Atlantic puffins,skuas, andblack-legged kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs.[103]
Commercial whaling is practised intermittently[104][105] along with scientific whale hunts.[106] Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997.[107] Around 1,300 species of insects are known in Iceland. This is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). Iceland is essentially free ofmosquitoes.[108]
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Iceland performs in the high range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in inclusive suffrage.[109][110][111] In 2024, Iceland was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions[112] and 10th in government transparency.[113] The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections,[114] compared to an OECD average of 72%. Iceland scored second in Europe for their trust in legal institutions (police, parliament, and judiciary) at a mean of 73% trust as of 2018.[115] Many political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries).[116]
Women's rights
Women in Iceland first gained the right to vote in 1915 (with restrictions) and increased voting rights in 1920.[117] Iceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women.[118] Known as theWomen's List (Kvennalistinn), it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women. It left a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women. In the 2021 elections, 48% of members of parliament are female compared to the global average of 16% in 2009.[119][120][121]Vigdís Finnbogadóttir was the world's first democratically elected female head of state. In 2009,Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became the world'sfirst openly LGBThead of government.[122]
Iceland is arepresentative democracy and aparliamentary republic. The modern parliament,Alþingi (English:Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch. It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in theCommonwealth period and temporarily suspended from 1799 to 1845. Consequently, "it is arguably the world's oldestparliamentary democracy."[123] It has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years.[124] The head of government is the prime minister, who with thecabinet, is responsible forexecutive government.
Thepresident of Iceland, in contrast, is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum.[125][126] They are elected by popular vote for a term of four years with no term limit. The current president isHalla Tómasdóttir, having been in office since 1 August 2024. The elections for the president, the Althing, and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years.[127]
The cabinet in the country's government is typically appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing. However, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide amongst themselves which parties can form the cabinet and how to distribute its seats, as long as it has majority support in the Althing. If the party leaders are unable to come to an agreement within a reasonable period of time, the president will personally appoint the cabinet. That has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, although in 1942 the regent,Sveinn Björnsson, appointed a non-parliamentary government. Sveinn held the practical position of president at the time and later became the country's first official president in 1944.
The governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period. There is no legal consensus on the extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest otherwise.[128] In 1980, Icelanders electedVigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state. She retired from office in 1996. In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government whenJóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister.[129]
Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, and municipalities. The eight regions are primarily used for statistical purposes. District court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.[77] Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:
South (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs)
The redistricting change was made to balance the weight of different districts of the country, since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but it still exists.[77]
Sixty-two municipalities in Iceland govern local matters like schools, transport, and zoning.[130] These are the actualsecond-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes. Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous thanKópavogur, the second largest.[77]
Nordic prime ministers and the president of Finland visiting theWhite House in 2016, with Iceland'sSigurður second from the left
Iceland, which is a member of theUN,NATO,EFTA,Council of Europe, andOECD, maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada, and the other NATO nations are particularly close. Historically, due to cultural, economic, and linguistic similarities, Iceland is aNordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through theNordic Council.
Iceland is a member of theEuropean Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU). It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009, the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of the application for EU membership[131] and officially applied on 17 July 2009.[132] However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; after the2013 Icelandic parliamentary election the two parties which formed the island's new government—the centrist Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party—announced that they would hold a referendum on EU membership.[133] In 2015, Minister for Foreign AffairsGunnar Bragi Sveinsson informed the EU that Iceland would no longer pursue membership, but the application was not formally withdrawn and there have been subsequent calls for a referendum on the issue.[134][135]
Iceland was the neutral host of the historic 1986Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of theCold War. Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements overexclusive economic zones. Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-calledCod Wars, which included confrontations between the Icelandic Coast Guard and theRoyal Navy regarding British fishermen: in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from 3 to 4 nmi (5.6 to 7.4 km; 3.5 to 4.6 mi), in 1958–1961 following a further extension to 12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi), in 1972–1973 with another extension to 50 nmi (92.6 km; 57.5 mi), and in 1975–1976 after another extension to 200 nmi (370.4 km; 230.2 mi).[142]
According to the 2024Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate, and high level of socio-political stability.[143] Iceland is listed inGuinness World Records as the "country ranked most at peace"[144] and the "lowest military spending per capita".[145]
Akureyri is the largest town in Iceland outside theCapital Region. Most rural towns are based on the fishing industry, which provides 40% of Iceland's exports.
Historically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides ~20% of export earnings and employs 7% of the workforce.[77][149] The economy is now more dependent on tourism, but important sectors continue to be fish and fish products, aluminium, andferrosilicon. Iceland's economic dependence on fishing is diminishing, from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 20% in 2020.[150][149]
Until the 20th century, Iceland was a fairly poor country.Whaling in Iceland was historically significant. It is now one of the most developed countries in the world. Strong economic growth led Iceland to be rankedthird in theUnited Nations'Human Development Index report for 2021/2022.[12] According to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland had the second-highest quality of life in the world.[151] Based on theGini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world,[152] and whenadjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking is sixth.[153] Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed as of June 2012[update], compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.[77][154][155]
The national currency of Iceland is theIcelandic króna (ISK). Iceland is the only country in the world to have a population under two million yet still have a floating exchange rate and an independent monetary policy.[156] A poll released on 5 March 2010 by CapacentGallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favor of adopting theeuro and 69% opposed.[157] Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 discovered that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum.[158]
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production,biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%.[159] The tourism sector is expanding, especially inecotourism and whale-watching. On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population.[160] 1.7 million people visited Iceland in 2016, 3 times more than the number that came in 2010.[161] Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP,[77] consists mainly ofpotatoes, green vegetables (ingreenhouses),mutton, and dairy products.[77] The financial center isBorgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks. Iceland'sstock market, theIceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.[162] As of 2019[update], Iceland ranks 26th in theWorld Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, two places lower than in 2018.[163] According to theGlobal Innovation Index, Iceland is the 22nd most innovative country in the world in 2024.[164]
Despite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change. Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas. The OECD'sEconomic Survey of Iceland 2008 highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy.[165] There was acurrency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy.[166] An assessment by the OECD 2011[167] determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy to address inflation.[167] Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and as of 2015[update] is the 31st-highest in the world by proportion of national GDP.[168]
Iceland was hit especially hard by theGreat Recession that began in December 2007 because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis. Before the crash of the country's three largest banks,Glitnir,Landsbanki, andKaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion).[169][170] In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the financial crisis. The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used the permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks.[171] Icelandic officials, including central bank governorDavíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets. Instead, new banks were established to take on the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks were to be run into bankruptcy.
On 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (as of August 2019[update], it was 3.5%), a move forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan fromInternational Monetary Fund (IMF). After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with a valuation at around 250 ISK per euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before. On 20 November 2008, theNordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion.[172]
On 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis. A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in the law. Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank.[173]
Thousands of Icelanders left the country after the collapse, many of them moved to Norway. In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625.[174] In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament's Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation,[175] revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis.[176] By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of theIcesave debt.[177] According toBloomberg in 2014, Iceland was on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the banks to fail.[178]
Iceland has a high level of car ownership per capita, with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport.[179] Iceland has 13,034 km (8,099 mi) of administered roads, of which 4,617 km (2,869 mi) are paved and 8,338 km (5,181 mi) are not.[as of?] The road speed limits are 30 and 50 km/h (19 and 31 mph) in towns, 80 km/h (50 mph) on gravel country roads and 90 km/h (56 mph) on hard-surfaced roads. A great number of interior roads remain unpaved, mostly little-used rural roads.[180] Many of Iceland's roads can be challenging to navigate during winter, particularly when covered with snow or ice. Using a 4x4 vehicle provides greater flexibility for travel and improves accessibility to remote areas.[181]
Route 1, or the Ring Road (Icelandic:Þjóðvegur 1 orHringvegur), completed in 1974, is the main road that runs around Iceland and connects most inhabited parts of the island. The interior of the island is mostly uninhabitable. The road is paved and is 1,332 km (828 mi) long with one lane in each direction, except between and within larger towns and cities where it has more lanes.[182] On Route 1, there are about 30 single-lane bridges, particularly prevalent in the southeast.[183]
Public transport
Long-distance bus operated by the public bus companyStrætó
Keflavík International Airport (KEF)[186] is the largest airport and the main aviation hub for international passenger transport.[187] KEF is in the southwest of the country, 49 km (30 mi)[188] from Reykjavík City Center.Reykjavík Airport (RKV)[189] is the second-largest airport, located just 1.5 km from the capital centre. Reykjavík Airport serves daily regular domestic flights within Iceland, general aviation, private aviation, andmedivac traffic.[190]
Akureyri Airport (AEY)[191] andEgilsstaðir Airport (EGS)[192] are two other airports with domestic service and limited international service. Akureyri Airport opened an expanded international terminal in 2024.[193] There are a total of 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.
Sea
Norröna ferry in Seyðisfjorður, bound to theFaroe Islands and Denmark
Several ferry services provide regular access to various island communities and shorten travel distances. TheSmyril Line operates the shipNorröna providing an international ferry service fromSeyðisfjörður to theFaroe Islands andDenmark.[194] Several companies includingEimskip and Samskip provide maritime transport services to Iceland and Iceland's largest ports are managed by Faxaflóahafnir.[195]
Renewable sources—geothermal andhydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity[196] and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption,[197] with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet.[198][199] Iceland's largest geothermal power plants areHellisheiði andNesjavellir,[200][201] whileKárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station.[202] When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun began operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.[148] In 2023,battery electric vehicles constituted 50.1% of new registrations, and around 18% of the country's vehicle fleet was electrified in 2024.[203][204] Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered byfuel cells.[205]
Despite that, Icelanders emitted 16.9 tonnes of CO2 per capita in 2016, the highest among EFTA and EU members, mainly resulting from transport andaluminium smelting.[206] Nevertheless, in 2010, Iceland was reported byGuinness World Records as "the Greenest Country", reaching the highest score by theEnvironmental Sustainability Index, which measures a country's water use, biodiversity and adoption of clean energies, with a score of 93.5/100.[207]
On 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round ofoffshore licences for companies wanting to conducthydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as theDreki area.[208] Three exploration licenses were awarded but all were later relinquished.[209]
Iceland's official governmental goal is to cutgreenhouse gas emissions by 40% by the year 2030 and reachcarbon neutrality by the year 2040.[210] As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2016 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.[211]
TheMinistry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines. However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities. The government allows citizens tohome educate their children, however, under a very strict set of demands.[212] Students must adhere closely to the government-mandated curriculum, and the parents teaching must acquire a government-approved teaching certificate.
Nursery school, orleikskóli, is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years and is the first step in the education system. The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994. They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.[213][214][215]
Compulsory education, orgrunnskóli, comprises primary and lower secondary education, which is often conducted at the same institution. Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years. The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, and ending between 31 May and 10 June. The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180. Lessons take place five days a week. All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by theMinister of Education.[216]
Upper secondary education, orframhaldsskóli, follows lower secondary education. These schools are also known asgymnasia in English. Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education. This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996. All schools in Iceland are mixed-sex schools. The largest seat of higher education is theUniversity of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík. Other schools offering university-level instruction includeReykjavík University,University of Akureyri,Agricultural University of Iceland, andBifröst University. An OECD assessment found that 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%. Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%.[160] Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered excellent: theProgramme for International Student Assessment ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average.[217] Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.
According to a 2013Eurostat report by theEuropean Commission, Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to reach by 2020.[218] Iceland was ranked 24th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025[219][220] A 2010UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (US$100 million or more), Iceland ranked ninth by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the United Kingdom and Canada.[221]
Reykjavík, Iceland's largest metropolitan area and the centre of theCapital Region which, with a population of 233,034, makes 64% of Iceland's population (numbers from 2020)
The original population of Iceland was ofNorse andGaelic origin which is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such asblood type and genetic analyses. One such genetic study indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin, while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland were Norsemen who brought Gaelic slaves with them.[222]
Iceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to theAge of Settlement. The biopharmaceutical companydeCODE genetics has funded the creation of agenealogy database that is intended to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants. It views the database, calledÍslendingabók, as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.
The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, andbubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times.[16] There were 37 years offamine in Iceland between 1500 and 1804.[223] The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358. After the destructive volcanic eruptions of theLaki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000.[224] Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century, from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008. Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or younger. With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth ratesufficient for long-term population growth (see table below).[225][226]
In December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship.Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce.[1] About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them inFjarðabyggð, where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant.[227] Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (seeKárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary. Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of theIcelandic financial crisis.[228]
The southwest corner of Iceland is by far the most densely populated region. It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world. More than 70 percent of Iceland's population lives in the southwest corner (Greater Reykjavík and the nearbySouthern Peninsula), which covers less than two percent of Iceland's land area. The largest town outside Greater Reykjavík isReykjanesbær, which is located on the Southern Peninsula, less than 50 km (31 mi) from the capital. The largest town outside the southwest corner isAkureyri in northern Iceland. About 500 Icelanders under the leadership ofErik the Red settledGreenland in the late tenth century.[229] The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000, and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500.[230] People from Greenland attempted to set up a settlement atVinland in North America, but abandoned it in the face of hostility from theindigenous population.[231]
Emigration of Icelanders to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s. As of 2021[update], Canada had over 101,000 people ofIcelandic descent,[232] while there are more than 40,000 Americans ofIcelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census.[233]
Iceland's official written and spoken language isIcelandic, aNorth Germanic language descended fromOld Norse. In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and nouninflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages. The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is, to a large degree, a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation. Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of therunic letterÞ inLatin script. The closest living relative of the Icelandic language isFaroese.
Icelandic Sign Language was officially recognized as a minority language in 2011. In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community isregulated by theNational Curriculum Guide.
English and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school curriculum. English is widely understood and spoken, while basic to moderate knowledge of Danish is common mainly among the older generations.[234]Polish is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the largest minority of Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to asskandinavíska (i.e.Scandinavian) in Iceland.[235] Iceland was a territory ruled byDenmark–Norway, one of whose official languages was Danish; its official status was terminated in 1944.
Rather than usingfamily names, as is the custom in most Western nations, most Icelanders carrypatronymic ormatronymic surnames, the usage of patronyms being far more practiced. Patronymic last names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names are based on the first name of the mother. They follow the person's given name, e.g.Elísabet Jónsdóttir ("Elísabet, Jón's daughter" (Jón being the father)) orÓlafur Katrínarson ("Ólafur, Katrín's son" (Katrín being the mother)).[236] Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory lists people alphabetically by the first name rather than by surname.[237] All new names must be approved by theIcelandic Naming Committee.
Iceland has auniversal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare (Icelandic:Velferðarráðuneytið)[238] and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%). Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent.[239]
A considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care,[239] and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP[240] and 14th in spending per capita.[241] Overall, the country's health care system is one of the best-performing in the world, ranked 15th by theWorld Health Organization.[242] According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialized nations. As of 2009[update], Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4).[241]
Icelanders are among the world's healthiest people, with 77% reporting they are in good health, more than the OECD average of 68%.[160] Although it is a growing problem,obesity is not as prevalent as in otherdeveloped countries.[241] Iceland has many campaigns for health and wellbeing, including the famous television showLazytown, starring and created by former gymnastics championMagnus Scheving.Infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world,[243] and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average.[241] Almost all women choose to terminate pregnancies of children withDown syndrome in Iceland.[244] The averagelife expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the fourth-highest in the world.[245]
Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness amongcitizens.[246] According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic materials in the atmosphere is far lower than in any other industrialised country measured.[247] In 2023, thesuicide rate in Iceland was 12.4 cases per 100,000. Over the last five years, from 2019–2023, there were an average of 41 suicides per year or 11.3 per 100,000 inhabitants.[248] In 2022, the country's consumption of antidepressants was the highest in Europe.[249]
Approximately 80 percent of Icelanders legally affiliate with a religious denomination, a process that happens automatically at birth and from which they can choose to opt out. They also pay a church tax (sóknargjald), which the government directs to help support their registered religion, or, in the case of no religion, the University of Iceland.[252]
The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen. In 2017, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows:
On March 8, 2021, Iceland formally recognized Judaism as a religion for the first time. Iceland's Jews will have the choice to register as such and direct their taxes to their own religion. Among other benefits, the recognition will also allow Jewish marriage, baby-naming, and funeral ceremonies to be civilly recognized.[252]
Iceland is a verysecular country; as with other Nordic nations,church attendance is relatively low.[253][254] The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population. According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants were eitheratheist oragnostic.[255] A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered themselves "religious", 31% considered themselves "non-religious", while 10% defined themselves as "convinced atheists", placing Iceland among the ten countries with the highest proportion of atheists in the world.[256]
Icelandic culture has its roots inNorth Germanic traditions.Icelandic literature is popular, in particular thesagas andeddas that were written during theHigh andLate Middle Ages. Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation of theIcelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Nordic languages.[257] The country has a strong tradition of upholdinghuman rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion and freedom of assembly with legislation for marginalized groups, such as women, immigrants, and the LGBTQ+ community.[258]
In contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by theEuropean Commission, over 85% of Icelanders believe independence is "very important", compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25.[259] Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation.[260]
According to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives would be satisfying in the future. Similarly, 83% reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of thehappiest countries in the OECD.[160] A more recent 2012 survey found that around three-quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%.[261] In 2022, 2023, and 2024 consecutively, Iceland ranked third in theWorld Happiness Report.[249]
Icelanders are known for their strong sense of community and lack ofsocial isolation: An OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialized country. Similarly, only 6% reported "rarely" or "never" socialising with others.[160] This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation.[262]Egalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world.[152] The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.[263] Everyone is addressed by their first name. As in other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in.[264][265][266]
A translation of theBible was published in the 16th century. Important compositions from the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously thePassion Hymns ofHallgrímur Pétursson, andrímur, rhyming epic poems. Originating in the 14th century,rímur were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influentialNational-Romantic writerJónas Hallgrímsson. Since then, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguablyHalldór Laxness, who received theNobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far).Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.
Icelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world. For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation.[263] Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines,[268] and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.[269][270]
Most books in Iceland are sold between late September to early November, a period known as theChristmas Book Flood (Jólabókaflóð).[267] The Flood begins with the Iceland Publisher's Association distributingBókatíðindi, a catalogue of all new publications, free to each Icelandic home.[267]
The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement forhome rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.
Contemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work ofÞórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s inCopenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape. Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied atRoyal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, includingÁsgrímur Jónsson, who with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style. Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur. These includedJóhannes Kjarval andJúlíana Sveinsdóttir. Kjarval, in particular, is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristicvolcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment.Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who, by some, is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting. In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work.
In recent years, the artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large-scale projects and exhibitions. The artist-run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organized spaces, exhibitions, and projects.[271]The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum,Reykjavík Art Museum, and theNational Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.
Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious. Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's history. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century. Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed byharmoniums. Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic, alliterative, and rhyming ballads calledrímur.Rímur are epic tales, usuallya cappella, which can be traced back toskaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes.[272] The best-known rímur poet of the 19th century wasSigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846). A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation ofKvæðamannafélagið Iðunn [is].[273][274]
Among Iceland's best-known classical composers areDaníel Bjarnason andAnna S. Þorvaldsdóttir, who in 2012 received theNordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as theNew York Philharmonic's Kravis Emerging Composer, an honor which includes a $50,000 cash prize and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the second recipient.[275]
Iceland is home toLazyTown (Icelandic:Latibær), a children's educational musical comedy programme created byMagnús Scheving. It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the Americas, the UK and Sweden.[284] TheLazyTown studios are located inGarðabær.[285][286] The 2015 television crime seriesTrapped aired in the UK onBBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim and according toThe Guardian "the unlikeliest TV hit of the year".[287]
In 1992, the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, whenFriðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for hisChildren of Nature.[288] It features the story of an old man who is unable to continue running his farm. After being unwelcome in his daughter's and father-in-law's house in town, he is put in a home for the elderly. There, he meets an old girlfriend from his youth, and they both begin a journey through the wilds of Iceland to die together. This is the only Icelandic movie to have ever been nominated for anAcademy Award.[289]
On 17 June 2010, the parliament passed theIcelandic Modern Media Initiative, proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistle-blowers—the strongest journalist protection law in the world.[297] According to a 2024 report byFreedom House, Iceland is one of the highest-ranked countries in press freedom.[298]
CCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimedEVE Online andDust 514, are headquartered in Reykjavík.[299] CCP Games hosts the third-most populatedMMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game, according toGuinness World Records.[300]
Iceland has a highly developedinternet culture, with around 99.8% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world.[301] Iceland ranked 16th in the World Economic Forum's 2016Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology.[302] TheUnited Nations International Telecommunication Union ranked the country first in its development of information and communications technology in 2017, having moved up one place from 2016.[303] In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as it supports child slavery and abuse. Strong voices within the community expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block access to pornography without compromising freedom of speech.[304][305][306]
Much of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish,lamb, anddairy products, with little to no use of herbs or spices. Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food.Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes and is usually consumed around the month ofÞorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January. Traditional dishes also includeskyr (a yogurt-like cheese),hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, andblack pudding, Flatkaka (flatbread), dried fish, and dark rye bread traditionally baked in the ground in geothermal areas.[307]Puffin is considered a local delicacy which is often prepared through broiling.
Breakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of asmörgåsbord. The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course. Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularlycod andhaddock but alsosalmon,herring, andhalibut. It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried. Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known ashangikjöt) or salt-preserved (saltkjöt). Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such asslátur, which consists ofoffal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in the sheep's stomach. Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.[308][309]
Coffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, with the country being third placed by per capita consumption worldwide in 2016,[310] and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon.Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world.[311]
Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage isbrennivín (literally "burnt [i.e., distilled] wine"), which is similar in flavouring to theakvavit variant of Scandinavianbrännvin. It is a type ofschnapps made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with eithercaraway seeds orangelica. Its potency has earned it the nicknamesvarti dauði ("Black Death"). Modern distilleries on Iceland producevodka (Reyka),gin (Ísafold),moss schnapps (Fjallagrasa), and abirch-flavored schnapps andliqueur (Foss Distillery's Birkir and Björk). Martin Miller blends Icelandic water with its England-distilled gin on the island. Strong beer wasbanned until 1989, sobjórlíki, a mixture of legal, low-alcoholpilsner beer and vodka, became popular. Several strong beers are now made by Icelandic breweries.
Sport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active.[313] The main traditional sport in Iceland isGlíma, a form ofwrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.
Iceland is also the smallest country to ever qualify forEurobasket, having done so in both 2015 and 2017. However, they have not managed to win a single game in the European Basketball final stages.
Iceland has excellent conditions forskiing,fishing,snowboarding,ice climbing androck climbing, althoughmountain climbing andhiking are preferred by the general public. Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring andTelemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity. Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, nevertheless there are many golf courses throughout the island and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than Scotland, with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of approximately 300,000.[315] Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice atAkureyri Golf Club.[316][317] Iceland has won the second mostWorld's Strongest Man competitions of any country with nine titles, including four each byMagnús Ver Magnússon andJón Páll Sigmarsson, and most recently byHafþór Júlíus Björnsson in 2018.
Iceland is also one of the leading countries inocean rowing. Icelandic explorer and endurance athleteFiann Paul holds the highest number of performance-basedGuinness World Records within a single athletic discipline. As of 2020, he is the first and only person to achieve theOcean Explorers Grand Slam (performing open-water crossings on each of the five oceans using human-powered vessels) and has claimed overall speedGuinness World Records for the fastest rowing of all four oceans (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and the Arctic) in ahuman-powered row boat. He had achieved 41 records, including 33 performance basedGuinness World Records by 2020.[318][319][320][321][322]
Swimming is popular in Iceland. Geothermally heated outdoor pools are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the national curriculum.[317]Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders. The oldest sports association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867. Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who pushed for Icelandic independence. Even now, it remains a significant pastime.[323]
Iceland has produced many chess masters and hosted the historicWorld Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of theCold War. As of 2008[update], there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number related to the small size of the population of the country.[324]Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in several international tournaments. Iceland won the world bridge championship (theBermuda Bowl) inYokohama, Japan in 1991 and came in second place (with Sweden) inHamilton, Bermuda, in 1950.[325]
^"Statistics Iceland".Government. The National Statistical Institute of Iceland. 14 September 2008.Archived from the original on 2 December 1998. Retrieved14 September 2008.
^Rae, Alison. Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Page 9. 2008. "Iceland is the only part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that rises above sea level, and its central volcanic plateau is erupting almost constantly."
^Philippon, Mélody; Von Hagke, Christoph; E. Reber, Jacqueline. Cutting-Edge Analogue Modeling Techniques Applied to Study Earth Systems. Page 99. 2020. "Iceland is the only place on Earth where a mid-ocean ridge is exposed above sea level, atop the extensional plate boundary separating the North American plate and the Eurasian plate."
^Coroban, Costel (2018).Ideology and Power in Norway and Iceland, 1150-1250. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 2.ISBN9781527506268
^developer, M. Özgür NevresI am a software; University, a science enthusiast I. was graduated from the Istanbul Technical; past, Computer Engineering In the; Earth, I. worked at the Istanbul Technical University Science Center as a science instructor I. write about the planet; Website, Science on This; cats, ourplnt com I. am also an animal lover! I. take care of stray; Patreon, dogs This website's all income goes directly to our furry friends Please consider supporting me on; animals!, so I. can help more (3 April 2018)."Iceland is growing new forests for the first time in 1,000 years - Our Planet".ourplnt.com. Retrieved10 April 2025.
^Miller, Gifford H.; Geirsdóttir, Áslaug; Zhong, Yafang; Larsen, Darren J.;Otto-Bliesner, Bette L.;Holland, Marika M.; Bailey, David A.; Refsnider, Kurt A.; Lehman, Scott J.; Southon, John R.; Anderson, Chance; Björnsson, Helgi; Thordarson, Thorvaldur (30 January 2012). "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks".Geophysical Research Letters.39 (2): n/a.Bibcode:2012GeoRL..39.2708M.CiteSeerX 10.1.1.639.9076.doi:10.1029/2011GL050168.S2CID 15313398
^Maddicott, J.R. (2 June 2009)."6th–10th century AD". Findarticles.com. p. 14. Archived fromthe original on 1 October 2009. Retrieved10 February 2010.
^Þorsteinn, Helgason (28 March 2006)."Hvaða heimildir eru til um Tyrkjaránið?" [What are the sources of the Turkish Abductions?] (in Icelandic). University of Iceland.Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved9 March 2021.
^Gunnar Helgi Kristinsson (28 June 2005)."Iceland and the European Union". In Lee Miles (ed.).The European Union and the Nordic Countries. Routledge. p. 150.ISBN978-1-134-80405-4.Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved30 November 2018.
^Bott, Martin H. P.; Saxov, Svend; Talwani, Manik; Thiede, Jörn (1983).Structure and Development of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge: New Methods and Concepts.Springer Science+Business Media. p. 464.ISBN978-1-4613-3487-3.
^"Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes". Icelandic Meteorological Office, Institute of Earth Sciences at the University of Iceland, Civil Protection Department of the National Commissioner of the Iceland Police. 2019. Retrieved13 January 2024.
^Lamb H. (1995).Climate, History and the Modern World. Routledge.ISBN978-0415127356.
^Dixon, P.S. and Irvine, L.M. 1977Seaweeds of the British Isles Volume 1 Rhodophyta Part 1 Introduction, Nemaliales, Gigartinales. British Museum (Natural History)ISBN0 565 00781 5
^"The Energy Sector". Askja Energy – The Independent Icelandic Energy Portal. 11 November 2011.Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved4 August 2013.
^Fox, Jonathan (2008).A World Survey of Religion and the State. Cambridge Studies in Social Theory, Religion and Politics.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-70758-9.Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved28 January 2021.All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity. Formally, only the Minister of Education has the power to exempt students from this, but individual schools usually grant informal exemptions.
^Lancaster, H.O. (1990).Expectations of Life: A Study in the Demography, Statistics, and History of World Mortality. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 399.ISBN978-0-387-97105-6.
^Froese, Paul (2001). "Hungary for Religion: A Supply-Side Interpretation of the Hungarian Religious Revival".Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.40 (2):251–268.doi:10.1111/0021-8294.00054.
Bjarnason, Egill.(2021)How Iceland Changed the World: The Big History of a Small Island. (Penguin. 2021.)
Byock, Jesse (1990)Medieval Iceland Society, Sagas, and Power University of California Press.ISBN9780520069541.
Heiðarsson, Jakob Oskar (2015) 'Iceland – My Small Island'.
Jonsson, Asgeir (2008).Why Iceland? How One of the World's Smallest Countries Became the Meltdown's Biggest Casualty. McGraw–Hill Professional.ISBN978-0-07-163284-3.
Jonsson, Ivar (2012) 'Explaining the Crisis of Iceland – A Realist Approach' inJournal of Critical Realism, 11,1.
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
