This article is about an ancient people known today as the Iberians from the Iberian Peninsula. For modern-day Iberians, seeSpanish people andPortuguese people. For the ancient Georgians, seeKingdom of Iberia.
The famous bust of the "Lady of Elche", probably a priestess."Warrior of Moixent" Iberian (Edetan)ex-voto statuette, 2nd to 4th centuries BC, found inEdeta.
TheIberians (Latin:Hibērī, fromGreek:Ἴβηρες,Iberes) were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of theIberian Peninsula, at least from the 6th century BC. They are described inGreek andRoman sources (among others, byHecataeus of Miletus,Avienius,Herodotus andStrabo). Roman sources also use the termHispani to refer to the Iberians.
Starting in the 5th century BC, Iberian soldiers were frequentlydeployed in battles in Italy, Greece and especially Sicily due to their military qualities.
The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BC, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BC in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula.[2][3][4] The Iberians lived in villages andoppida (fortified settlements) and their communities were based on atribal organization. The Iberians in theSpanish Levant were more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of theIberian peninsula. The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly speakers ofCeltic dialects, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had a few fortified towns likeNumantia.[5] They had a knowledge ofwriting,metalworking, includingbronze, andagricultural techniques.
In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew insocial complexity, exhibiting evidence ofsocial stratification andurbanization. This process was probably aided by trading contacts with thePhoenicians,Greeks, andCarthaginians. By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC a series of important social changes led to the consolidation of an aristocracy and the emergence of aclientele system. "This new political system led, among other things, to cities and towns that centered around these leaders, also known asterritorial nucleation. In this context, theoppidum or fortified Iberian town became the centre of reference in the landscape and the political space."[6]
The settlement ofCastellet de Banyoles inTivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.[7]
Sagunto is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BC.
Greek colonists made the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BC. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of theEbro river (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in theCaucasus region, currently known asCaucasian Iberians. It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples.
The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberianpottery and metalwork has been found inFrance,Italy, andNorth Africa. The Iberians had extensive contact withGreek colonists in the colonies ofEmporion,Rhode, andHemeroskopeion. The Iberians may have adopted some of theGreeks' artistic techniques.Statues such as theLady of Baza and theLady of Elx are thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greekart.Thucydides stated that one of the three original tribes ofSicily, theSicani, were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included what we think of asGaul.[8]
The Iberians also had contacts with thePhoenicians, who had established various colonies in southernAndalucia. Their firstcolony on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BC and was originally calledGadir, later renamed by the Romans asGades (modernCádiz). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (Málaga),Sexi andAbdera.
Iberia during the Second Punic War, showing the short-lived Carthaginian (yellow) and Roman (red) territories and allies
After theFirst Punic war, the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula.Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from his base atCádiz by conquering the TartessianGuadalquivir river region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-lawHasdrubal the Fair continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modernCartagena) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the riverEbro. After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BC, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro.[10] In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated theOlcades, theVaccaei and theCarpetani expanding his control over the riverTagus region.[11] Hannibal then laid siege to the Roman ally ofSaguntum, and this led to the beginning of theSecond Punic War. The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage.
Rome sentGnaeus andPublius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated the IberianIlergetes tribe north of the Ebro who were allied with Carthage, conquered the Iberianoppidum ofTarraco and defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BC, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in the retreat. The tide turned with the arrival ofPublius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in 210 BC. Scipio attacked and conqueredCarthago Nova and defeated the army ofHasdrubal Barca at theBattle of Baecula (209–208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until theBattle of Ilipa (modernAlcalá del Río inSevilla province), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated toGades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain.
After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces,Hispania Ulterior andHispania Citerior. In 197 BC, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in the H. Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conqueredLusitania andCeltiberia. The Romans fought along and drawn out campaign for the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian peninsula would continue until 16 BC, when the final rebellions of theCantabrian Wars were defeated.
Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus"), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides".[12]
The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks.Horse breeding was particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova, the iron mines in theEbro valley, as well as the exploitation oftin andcopper deposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as thefalcata.
The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which the Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region. A distinct feature of the culture, the pottery was primarily decorated with geometric forms in red but in some areas (fromMurcia to the south ofCatalonia) it also included figurative images.[6]
The Iberianpolytheistic religion was influenced by the Greek and Phoenician practices, as it is evident in their sculptures. The man-bullBicha of Balazote (possibly a fertility deity) and various depictions of sphinxes and lions bear a resemblance toeastern Mediterranean mythological creatures. TheLady of Elche andLady of Guardamar show clear Hellenistic influence. Phoenician and Greek deities likeTanit,Baal,Melkart,Artemis,Demeter andAsclepius were known in the region and worshiped. Currently few native Iberian gods are known, though the oracular healing deity "Betatun" is known from a Latin inscription at Fuertes del Rey.[13] There was clearly an important female deity associated with the earth and regeneration as depicted by theLady of Baza and linked with birds, flowers and wheat.[13] The horse was also an important religious figure and an important sanctuary dedicated to Horses has been found in Mula (Murcia). There are many depictions of a "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" (despotes hippon). The female goddessAtaegina is also widely attested in the inscriptions.
Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves.[14] Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class andSilius Italicus mentions priests in the region ofTartessos at a temple ofMelqart. Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure.[15] Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common.
In Iberianeschatology, "death was seen as the starting point for a journey symbolised by a crossing of the sea, the land or even the sky. Supernatural and mythical beings, such as the Sphinx or the wolf, and sometimes Divinity itself, accompanied and guided the deceased on this journey".[6] The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs.
Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during thePunic wars was made up of Iberians andCeltiberians. Iberian warfare wasendemic and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termedconcursare by the Romans.[12] The Iberians were particularly fond ofambushes andguerrilla tactics.
Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry,scutati andcaetrati.Scutati were heavily armored and carried large Italic stylescutum shields. Thecaetrati carried the caetra, a small Iberianbuckler.[12] Iberian armaments included the famedGladius Hispaniensis, a curved sword called thefalcata, straight swords, spears, javelins and an all iron spear called theSoliferrum. Iberian horsemen were a key element of Iberian forces as well as Carthaginian armies. Spain was rich with excellent wild horses and Iberian cavalry was some of the best in the ancient Mediterranean.
Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of theIberian Peninsula, that corresponds to the northwestern shores of theMediterranean Sea (see the map), roughly in today'sCatalonia, Eastern, Northeastern and NorthernAragon,Valencian Community,Murcia Region, EasternAndalucia, and theBalearic Islands (inSpain), and also in today'sRoussillon and parts ofLanguedoc (inFrance).The peninsula has this name because ancientGreeks,Romans and other mediterranean peoples first contacted with peoples (tribes or tribal confederacies) that were Iberians in the ethnic and linguistic sense, although the majority of theIberian Peninsula's peoples, that dwelt in the Northern, Central and Western regions (the majority of the peninsula's area), were not Iberians themselves in the ethnic and linguistic sense (they could only be considered Iberians in the geographical sense, i.e. they dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula).
The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were:
Andosini - in the mountains of EastPyrenees southern slopes, in the highSegre river basin, area of modernAndorra.
Ilergetes/Ilergetae - in the plains area of the middle and lowSegre andCinca rivers towards theIberus (Ebro) river margins. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations.Iltrida (Ilerda in Roman times, today'sLérida/Lleida) was their main centre.
Laietani - in the lowLlobregat river basin, along a part of the mediterranean coast roughly in what is today a part of theBarcelona province andBarcelona city. Laieta (Barcino in Roman times andBarcelona in modern times) was their main centre.
Oretani - In the highBaetis (Guadalquivir) river valley, easternMarianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and southern area of today'sLa Mancha. They could have been an Iberian tribe, aCeltic one, or a mixed Celtic and Iberian tribe or tribal confederacy (and hence related to theCeltiberians). The Mantesani/Mentesani/Mantasani of today'sLa Mancha and theGermani (of Oretania) in easternMarianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and west Jabalón river valley, sometimes are included in the Oretani but it is not certain if they were Oretani tribes.
Paleohispanic languages according to inscriptions (except Aquitanian – according toanthroponyms and theonyms used inLatin inscriptions)Iberian scripts in the context ofpaleohispanic scripts
The Iberian language, like the rest of thepaleohispanic languages exceptBasque, becameextinct by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced byLatin. The Iberian language remains an unclassified non-Indo European language. A 1978 study claimed many similarities between Iberian and theMessapic language.[16] Iberian languages also share some elements with the Basque language.[17] Links have also been found with theEtruscan language andMinoanLinear A.[18]
There are different theories about the origin of the Iberian language. According to theCatalan theory, the Iberian language originated in northernCatalonia, from where it expanded north and south.[19]
^Arrian,The Anabasis of Alexander, VII.XV. "As he was marching back toBabylon, he was met by embassies from theLibyans, who congratulated him and crowned him as conqueror of the kingdom of Asia. From Italy also cameBruttians,Lucanians, andTyrrhenians as envoys, for the same purpose. TheCarthaginians are said to have sent an embassy to him at this time; and it is also asserted that envoys came to request his friendship from theEthiopians, theScythians of Europe, theGauls, and Iberians — nations whose names were heard and their accoutrements seen then for the first time byGreeks andMacedonians. They are also said to have entrusted to Alexander the duty of settling their disputes with each other. Then indeed it was especially evident both to himself and to those about him that he was lord of all the land and sea."
^Dodge, Theodore Ayrault,Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C, p.143[permanent dead link]
^Hoyos, D.Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247-183 BC, p.89-91, 2003
^abcRafael Treviño Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
^abLisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe
^José Ignacio Hualde, Joseba A. Lakarra, Towards a History of the Basque Language, page 55.
^Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al., Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics, 171.
^Velaza, Javier (2006)Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indígena de Cataluña, Actes de la III Reunió Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 to 27 November 2004), Arqueo Mediterrània 9, pp. 273-280
TheMadeira,Azores, andCanary Islands were not occupied by theRomans. The Madeira and Azores islands were unoccupied until thePortuguese in the 15th century; the Canary islands, theGuanches occupied the territory until the Castilians.
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