The termCantonese is often used to refer to the whole branch, but linguists prefer to reserve the nameCantonese for the variety used inGuangzhou (Canton),Wuzhou (Ngchow),Hong Kong andMacau, which is theprestige dialect of the group.Taishanese, from the coastal area ofJiangmen (Kongmoon) located southwest of Guangzhou, was the language of most of the 19th-century emigrants from Guangdong to Southeast Asia and North America. Most later migrants have been speakers of Cantonese.
Yue languages are notmutually intelligible with each other or with otherChinese languages outside the branch.[2][3] They are among the mostconservative varieties with regard to the final consonants and tonal categories ofMiddle Chinese, but have lost several distinctions in the initial consonants and medial glides that other Chinese varieties have retained.
Cantonese is prototypically used in English to refer to the variety of Yue in Guangzhou,[4] but it is also used to refer to Yue as a whole.[5] To avoid confusion, academic texts may refer to the larger branch as "Yue",[6][7] following thepinyin system based onStandard Chinese, and either restrict "Cantonese" to the Guangzhou variety, or avoid the term altogether, distinguishing Yue from its Guangzhou dialect. Some linguists such as Anne Yue and Norbert Francis designate Yue Chinese itself as a language.[8][9]
People from Hong Kong and Macau, as well asCantonese immigrants abroad, generally refer to their language as廣東話;Gwóngdūngwá; 'Guangdong speech'[kʷɔ̌ːŋtʊ́ŋwǎː]. In Guangdong and Guangxi, people also use the terms粵語;Yuhtyúh; 'Yue language'[jỳtjy̬ː] and白話;baahkwá (plain/colloquial speech)[pàːkwǎː]; for example, the expression南寧白話;Nàahmnìhng baahkwá means 'Nanning colloquial speech'.
The area of China south of theNanling Mountains, known as theLingnan (roughly modern Guangxi and Guangdong), was originally home to peoples known to the Chinese as theHundred Yue (orBaiyue). Large-scale Han Chinese migration to the area began after theQin conquest of the region in 214 BC.[10] Successive waves of immigration followed at times of upheaval in Northern and Central China, such as the collapse of theHan,Tang andSong dynasties.[10] The most popular route was via theXiang River, which the Qin had connected to theLi River by theLingqu Canal, and then into the valley of theXi Jiang.[11] A secondary route followed theGan River and then theBei Jiang into eastern Guangdong.[12] Yue-speakers were later joined byHakka speakers following the North River route, andMin speakers arriving by sea.[13]
After the fall of Qin, the Lingnan area was part of the independent state ofNanyue for about a century, before being incorporated into the Han empire in 111 BC.[12] After the Tang dynasty collapsed, much of the area became part of the state ofSouthern Han, one of the longest-lived states of theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, between 917 and 971.[12]
Large waves of Chinese migration throughout succeeding Chinese dynasties assimilated huge numbers of Yue aborigines, with the result that today's Southern Han Chinese Yue-speaking population is descended from both groups.[14] The colloquial layers of Yue varieties contain elements influenced by theTai languages formerly spoken widely in the area and still spoken by people such as theZhuang andDong.[15][16]
The port city ofGuangzhou lies in the middle ofPearl River Delta, with access to the interior via the Xi, Bei, andDong rivers, which all converge at the delta. It has been the economic centre of the Lingnan region since Qin times, when it was an important shipbuilding centre.[17] By 660, it was the largest port in China, part of a trade network stretching as far as Arabia.[18] During theSouthern Song, it also became the cultural centre of the region.[14] Like many other Chinese varieties it developed a distinct literary layer associated with the local tradition of reading the classics.[19] The Guangzhou dialect (Cantonese) was used in the popularYuè'ōu,Mùyú andNányīn folksong genres, as well asCantonese opera,[20][21] written with Chinese characters extended with a number of colloquial characters for Cantonese words.[21]
Guangzhou became the centre of rapidly expanding foreign trade after themaritime ban was lifted, with the BritishEast India Company establishing achamber of commerce in the city in 1715.[18] The ancestors of most of the Han Chinese population of Hong Kong came from Guangzhou after the territory was ceded to Britain in 1842. As a result,Hong Kong Cantonese, the most widely spoken language in Hong Kong and Macau, is an offshoot of the Guangzhou dialect.[22] Other migrations of Yue speakers during the nineteenth century, including west along the Guangdong and Guangxi coasts, brought Cantonese and other Yue varieties to southeast Asia.[23] Many went across the Pacific Ocean to North and South America, leading to the historic domination exerted by Yue Chinese varieties in manyChinatowns across the American continent.[23] The popularity of Cantonese-language media,Cantopop and thecinema of Hong Kong has since led to substantial exposure of Cantonese to China and the rest of Asia.
On the mainland, the national policy is to promote Standard Chinese, which is also the medium of instruction in schools.[24] The place of local Cantonese language and culture remains contentious. In 2010, acontroversial proposal to switch some programming on Guangzhou local television from Cantonese to Mandarin was abandoned following widespread backlash accompanied by publicprotests.[25]
Yue languages are spoken in the southern provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi, an area long dominated culturally and economically by the city of Guangzhou at the delta of thePearl River. Cantonese, also spoken in Hong Kong and Macau, is the prestige variety of Yue. Yue varieties are not totally mutually intelligible with one another.[3]
The influence of Guangzhou has spread westward along the Pearl River system, so that, for example, the speech of the city ofWuzhou some 190 km (120 mi) upstream in Guangxi is much more similar to that of Guangzhou than dialects of coastal districts that are closer but separated from the city of Guangzhou by hilly terrain.[26] One of these coastal languages, Taishanese, is the most common Yue variety among overseas communities.[7] However, many such Chinatowns have been historically dominated by varieties closer to a more standard Cantonese; among these are those ofHanoi,Kuala Lumpur,Sydney,Vancouver, andLondon.[23]
Yue Chinese is the most widely spoken local language inGuangdong. Its native speakers constitute around a half (47%) of its population. The other half is equally divided betweenHakka andMin languages, mostlyTeochew, but alsoHaklau andLeizhounese.[27]
Yue is also the most widespread Sinitic language inGuangxi, spoken by slightly more than a half of its Han population. The other half is almost equally divided between theSouthwestern Mandarin, Hakka, andPinghua; there is also a considerableXiang-speaking population and a smallHokkien-speaking minority. Yue Chinese is spoken by 35% of the total population of Guangxi, being one of the two largest languages in that province, along withZhuang.[27]
In China, as of 2004, 60% of all Yue speakers lived in Guangdong, 28.3% lived in Guangxi, and 11.6% lived in Hong Kong.[27]
In theLanguage Atlas of China, some varieties spoken in western Guangxi formerly classified as Yue are placed in a separatePinghua group.[30]The remaining Yue dialects are divided into seven groups.[28]Three groups are found in the watershed of thePearl River:
Ngau–Lau dialects are spoken in inland areas of western Guangdong and eastern Guangxi, and include the dialect ofYulin (Bobai). Ngau–Lau is spoken by 17% of all Yue speakers, with two-thirds of them living in Guangxi and one-third in Guangdong.
Yuhng–Cham is spoken mainly in theYong–Yu–Xun valley in Guangxi, including the provincial capitalNanning. It is spoken by around 7% of Yue speakers.
The remaining four groups are found in coastal areas:
Sze-yap or Siyi dialects are spoken in the coastal prefecture ofJiangmen to the southwest of Guangzhou. They include theTaishan variety, also known asTaishanese, which was ubiquitous in AmericanChinatowns before the 1970s. Sze-yap dialects are spoken by 6.5% of total Yue speakers.
Gao–Yang dialects are spoken in areas of southwestern Guangdong such asYangjiang andLianjiang. They cover around 11% of all Yue Chinese speakers.
Wu–Hua is spoken mainly in western Guangdong aroundWuchuan andHuazhou. Native speakers of this variety constitute only 2.1% of all Yue speakers.
Qin–Lian dialects are spoken in the southern Guangxi areas ofBeihai,Qinzhou andFangcheng. They are spoken by 6.5% of all Yue speakers.
Anne Yue-Hashimoto has proposed an alternative classification based on a wider sampling of features:[31][32][33][34]
Guan–Lian: dialects of the east delta region (Dongguan and theNew Territories) as well as the coastal Guangxi dialects classified as Qin–Lian in theAtlas.
Interior: Huazhou, Wuchuan, Yulin
Wuyi–Liangyang
Wuyi
Xin–En: Xinhui, Taishan, Enping and the neighbouringDoumen District.
Kai-He: Kaiping and Heshan.
Liangyang:Yangjiang andYangchun (the eastern part of theAtlas's Gao–Yang area)
TheDapeng dialect is a variety displaying features of both Cantonese and Hakka, spoken by 3,000–5,500 people in Dapeng, Shenzhen.[35]
The Guangzhou (Canton) dialect ofYuehai, usually called "Cantonese", is theprestige dialect of Guangdong province and social standard of Yue.[36] It is the most widely spoken dialect of Yue and is anofficial language of Hong Kong and of Macau, alongside English and Portuguese respectively. It is thelingua franca of not only Guangdong, but also many overseas Cantonese emigrants, though in many areas abroad it is numerically second to theTaishanese dialect of Yue.[37]
By law,Standard Chinese, based on theBeijing dialect of Mandarin, is taught nearly universally as a supplement to local languages such as Cantonese. In Guangzhou, much of the distinctively Yue vocabulary have been replaced with Cantonese pronunciations of corresponding Standard Chinese terms.[38]
Cantonese is the de facto official language of Hong Kong (along with English) and Macau (along with Portuguese), though legally the official language is just "Chinese".It is the oral language of instruction in Chinese schools in Hong Kong and Macau, and is used extensively in Cantonese-speaking households. Cantonese-language media (Hong Kong films, television serials, andCantopop), which exist in isolation from the other regions of China, local identity, and the non-Mandarin speaking Cantonese diaspora in Hong Kong and abroad give the language a unique identity. Colloquial Hong Kong Cantonese often incorporates English words due to historical British influences.
Mostwuxia films from Canton are filmed originally in Cantonese and then dubbed or subtitled in Mandarin, English, or both.
A speaker of Siyi Yue Chinese providing examples of differences between Siyi Yue and Cantonese
When the Chinese government removed the prohibition on emigration in the mid-19th century, many people from rural areas in the coastal regions of Fujian and Guangdong emigrated to Southeast Asia and North America. Until the late 20th century, the vast majority of Chinese immigrants to North America came from theSiyi ('four counties') to the southwest of Guangzhou.[37]The speech of this region, particularly the Taishan dialect, is thus the most common Yue variety in these areas.[7]It is only partially understood by speakers of Cantonese.[39][40]
Distribution of Yue and other subgroups of Chinese in East Asia
Yue varieties are among the mostconservative of Chinese varieties regarding the final consonants and tonal categories ofMiddle Chinese, so that the rhymes of Tang poetry are clearer in Yue dialects than elsewhere. However they have lost several distinctions in the initial consonants and medial vowels that other Chinese varieties have retained.[41]
In addition to aspirated and unaspirated voiceless initials, Middle Chinese had a series of voiced initials, but voicing has been lost in Yue and most other modern Chinese varieties apart fromWu andOld Xiang.[42]In the Guangfu, Siyi and Gao–Yang subgroups, these initials have yielded aspirated consonants in the level and rising tones, and unaspirated consonants in the departing and entering tones.These initials are uniformly unaspirated in Gou–Lou varieties and uniformly aspirated in Wu–Hua.[43]
In many Yue varieties, including Cantonese, Middle Chinese/kʰ/ has become[h] or[f] in most words; in Taishanese,/tʰ/ has also changed to[h],[44] for example, in the native name of the dialect, "Hoisan".In Siyi and eastern Gao–Yang, Middle Chinese/s/ has become avoiceless lateral fricative[ɬ].[45]
Most Yue varieties have merged the Middle Chineseretroflex sibilants with thealveolar sibilants, in contrast withMandarin dialects, which have generally maintained the distinction.[42] For example, the words將;jiāng and張;zhāng are distinguished in Mandarin, but in modern Cantonese they are both pronounced asjēung.
Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, have a third sibilant series, formed through a merger of palatalized alveolar sibilants and velars, but this is a recent innovation, which has not affected Yue and other Chinese varieties.[46] For example,晶,精,經 and京 are all pronounced asjīng in Mandarin, but in Cantonese the first pair is pronouncedjīng, while the second pair is pronouncedgīng. The earlier pronunciation is reflected in historical Mandarin romanizations, such as "Peking" for Beijing, "Kiangsi" forJiangxi, and "Tientsin" forTianjin.
Some Yue speakers, such as many Hong Kong Cantonese speakers born after World War II, merge/n/ with/l/,[47] but Taishanese and most other Yue varieties preserve the distinction.[42]Younger Cantonese speakers also tend not to distinguish between/ŋ/ and the zero initial,[48] though this distinction is retained in most Yue dialects.[42]Yue varieties retain the initial/m/ in words where Late Middle Chinese shows a shift to a labiodental consonant, realized in most Northern varieties of Chinese as[w].[49]Nasals can be independent syllables in Yue words, e.g. Cantonese五;ńgh; 'five', and唔;m̀h; 'not', although Middle Chinese did not have syllables of this type.[49]
In most Yue varieties (except forTengxian), the rounded medial/w/ has merged with the following vowel to form amonophthong, except after velar initials.In most analyses velars followed by/w/ are treated aslabio-velars.[50]
Most Yue varieties have retained the Middle Chinese palatal medial, but in Cantonese it has also been lost to monophthongization, yielding a variety of vowels.[51]
Middle Chinese syllables could end with glides/j/ or/w/, nasals/m/,/n/ or/ŋ/, or stops/p/,/t/ or/k/. Syllables with vocalic or nasal endings could occur with one of three tonal contours, called平; 'level',上; 'rising', or去; 'departing'. Syllables with final stops were traditionally treated as a fourth tone category, theentering tone入;rù, because the stops were distributed in the same way as the corresponding final nasals.[52]
While northern and central varieties have lost some of the Middle Chinese final consonants, they are retained by most southern Chinese varieties, though sometimes affected by sound shifts. They are most faithfully preserved in Yue dialects.[51]Final stops have disappeared entirely in most Mandarin dialects, including the Beijing-based standard, with the syllables distributed across the other tones.[46]For example, the characters裔,屹,藝,憶,譯,懿,肄,翳,邑, and佚 are all pronouncedyì in Mandarin, but they are all distinct in Yue: in Cantonese,yeuih,ngaht,ngaih,yīk,yihk,yi,yih,ai,yāp, andyaht, respectively.
Similarly, in Mandarin dialects the Middle Chinese final/m/ has merged with/n/, but the distinction is maintained in southern varieties of Chinese such asHakka,Min and Yue.[46]For example, Cantonese has譚;taahm and壇;tàahn versus Mandarintán,鹽;yìhm and言;yìhn versus Mandarinyán,添;tìm and天;tìn versus Mandarintiān, and含;hàhm and寒;hòhn versus Mandarinhán.
Middle Chinese is described in contemporary dictionaries as havingfour tones, where the fourth category, the entering tone, consists of syllables with final stops.Many modern Chinese varieties contain traces of a split of each of these four tones into two registers, an upper oryīn register from voiceless initials and a lower oryáng register from voiced initials.[53]Most Mandarin dialects retain the register distinction only in the level tone, yielding the first and second tones of the standard language (corresponding to the first and fourth tones in Cantonese), but have merged several of the other categories.Most Yue dialects have retained all eight categories, with a further split of the upper entering tone conditioned by vowel length, as also found in neighbouring Tai dialects.[54]A few dialects spoken in Guangxi, such as theBobai dialect, have also split the lower entering tone.
While most Chinese varieties form compounds consisting of a qualifier followed by a qualified element, Yue dialects may use the reverse order. For example, the Standard Chinese, and widely used Cantonese word for "guest" is客人;kèrén; 'guest-person', but the same morphemes may be reversed in Cantonese[jɐnha:k] versus Taishanese[ŋinhak], andTengxian[jənhɪk]. This has been hypothesized to be the influence ofTai languages, in which modifiers normally follow nouns.[55] But it is notable that the Standard Chinese word for 'married woman' (人妻) also follows the same structure. Gender markers for nouns are also suffixed, as in other southern varieties.[55]
Some Yue dialects, including Cantonese, can use the same word邊個;bīn-go; 'which one', for both 'who' and 'which'. Other dialects, including Taishanese, use誰;sŭe (cf. Mandarin誰;shéi) for 'who', and words meaning 'which one' for 'which'.[56]
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