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Hypersonic flight

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Flight faster than Mach 5 below 90 km

Hypersonic flight isflight through theatmosphere below altitudes of about 90 km (56 mi) atspeeds greater than Mach 5, a speed wheredissociation of air begins to become significant andheat loads become high. Speeds over Mach 25 had been achieved below thethermosphere as of 2020.[1][better source needed]

Reentry vehicle (RV) after an 8,000-kilometre (5,000 mi) flight, 1959. Note the blackened tip of the RV due toaerodynamic heating. Compare to the aerodynamic heating effect on theiron meteorite on the right.

History

[edit]

The first manufactured object to achieve hypersonic flight was the two-stageBumper rocket, consisting of aWAC Corporal second stage set on top of aV-2 first stage. In February 1949, atWhite Sands, the rocket reached a speed of 8,290 km/h (5,150 mph), or about Mach 6.7.[2] The vehicle burned up onre-entry, and only charred remnants survived.

In April 1961, RussianYuri Gagarin became the first human to travel at hypersonic speed, during the world's first pilotedorbital flight. Soon after, in May 1961, AmericanAlan Shepard became the first American and second human to fly hypersonic when his capsule reentered the atmosphere at a speed above Mach 5 at the end of hissuborbital flight over the Atlantic Ocean.[3]

In November 1961, AmericanRobert White flew theX-15 research aircraft at speeds over Mach 6.[4][5] On 3 October 1967, in California, an X-15 reached Mach 6.7.[6]

A key technology for hypersonic flight is theScramjet. TheNASA X-43A flew on scramjet for 10 seconds, and then glided for 10 minutes on its last flight in 2004. TheBoeing X-51 Waverider flew on scramjet for 210 seconds in 2013, reaching Mach 5.1 on its fourth flight test.

Space vehiclereentry was extensively studied.[7] The hypersonic regime is the subject of development during the 21st century, amidstrategic competition between the United States, India, Russia, and China.[8]

Physics

[edit]
Main article:Hypersonic speed

Stagnation point

[edit]

Thestagnation point of air flowing around a body is a point where its local velocity is zero. At this spot, moving air flows around this location. Ashock wave forms, which deflects the air from the stagnation point and insulates the flight body from the atmosphere.[7] This can affect the lifting ability of a flight surface, needed to counteract its drag and subsequentfree fall.[9][a]

In order to maneuver in the atmosphere at beyond supersonic speeds, propulsion can still use airbreathing systems, but aramjet is not sufficient to attain Mach 5, as a ramjet slows the airflow to subsonic speed.[11] Systems such aswaveriders use a (first stage) rocket to boost a body into the hypersonic regime.Boost-glide vehicles use scramjets after their initial boost, in which the speed of the air passing through the scramjet remains supersonic.Munitions typically use a cannon for their initial boost.[12]

High temperature effect

[edit]

Hypersonic flow is a high energy flow.[13] The ratio of kinetic energy to the internal energy of the gas increases as the square of the Mach number. When this flow enters a boundary layer, high viscous effects appear due to the friction between air and the speeding object. In this case, the kinetic energy is converted in part to internal energy and gas energy is proportional to the internal energy. Therefore, hypersonic boundary layers are high temperature regions due to the viscous dissipation of the flow's kinetic energy. Another region of high temperature flow is the shock layer behind the strong bow shock wave. In the case of the shock layer, the flow's velocity decreases discontinuously as it passes through the shock wave. This results in a loss of kinetic energy and a gain of internal energy behind the shock wave. Due to high temperatures behind the shock wave, dissociation of molecules in the air becomes significant. For example, for air at T > 2,000 K (1,730 °C; 3,140 °F), dissociation of diatomic oxygen into oxygen radicals is active: O2 → 2O[14]: 41 [15]) For T > 4,000 K (3,730 °C; 6,740 °F), dissociation of diatomic nitrogen into N radicals is active: N2 → 2N[14]: 39  Consequently, in this temperature range, aplasma forms:[16] —molecular dissociation followed by recombination of oxygen and nitrogenradicals produces nitric oxide: N2 + O2 → 2NO, which then dissociates and recombines to formions: N + O → NO+ + e−[14]: 39 [17]

Low density flow

[edit]

At standard sea-level condition for air, themean free path of air molecules is aboutλ=68nm{\displaystyle \lambda =68\,\mathrm {nm} }. At an altitude of 104 km (65 mi), where the air is thinner, the mean free path isλ=1ft=0.305m{\displaystyle \lambda =1\,\mathrm {ft} =0.305\,\mathrm {m} }. Because of this, large free mean path aerodynamic concepts, equations, and results based on the assumption of a continuum, begin to break down, forcing consideration of aerodynamics fromkinetic theory. This regime of aerodynamics is called low-density flow. For a given aerodynamic condition low-density effects depend on the value of a nondimensional parameter called theKnudsen numberKn{\displaystyle \mathrm {Kn} }, defined asKn=λl{\displaystyle \mathrm {Kn} ={\frac {\lambda }{l}}} wherel{\displaystyle l} is the typical length scale of the object considered. The value of the Knudsen number based on nose radius,Kn=λR{\displaystyle \mathrm {Kn} ={\frac {\lambda }{R}}}, can be near one.

Hypersonic vehicles frequently fly at high altitudes and therefore encounter low-density conditions. Hence, the design and analysis of hypersonic vehicles sometimes require consideration of low-density flow. New generations of hypersonic airplanes may spend a considerable portion of their mission at high altitudes, and for these vehicles, low-density effects will become more significant.[13]

Thin shock layer

[edit]

The flow field between the shock wave and the body surface is called the shock layer. As the Mach number M increases, the angle of the resulting shock wave decreases. This Mach angle is described asμ=sin−1⁡(a/v){\displaystyle \mu =\sin ^{-1}(a/v)} where a is the speed of the sound wave and v is the flow velocity. Since M=v/a, the equation becomesμ=sin−1⁡(1/M){\displaystyle \mu =\sin ^{-1}(1/M)}. Higher Mach numbers position the shock wave closer to the body surface, thus at hypersonic speeds, the shock wave lies close to the body surface, resulting in a thin shock layer. At lowReynolds number, the boundary layer is thick and merges with the shock wave, leading to a viscous shock layer.[18]

Viscous interaction

[edit]

The compressible flow boundary layer increases proportionately to the square of the Mach number, and inversely to the square root of the Reynolds number.

At hypersonic speeds, this effect becomes much more pronounced, due to the exponential impact of the Mach number. Since the boundary layer becomes so large, it interacts more viscously with the surrounding flow. The overall effect of this interaction is to create much higher skin friction than normal, causing greater surface heat flow. Additionally, surface pressure spikes, which results in a much larger aerodynamicdrag coefficient. This effect is extreme at the leading edge and decreases as a function of length along the surface.[13]

Entropy layer

[edit]

The entropy layer is a region of large velocity gradients caused by the strong curvature of the shock wave. The entropy layer begins at the nose of the aircraft and extends downstream close to the body surface. Downstream of the nose, the entropy layer interacts with the boundary layer which causes an increase in aerodynamic body surface heating. Although the shock wave at the nose at supersonic speeds is also curved, the entropy layer is only observed at hypersonic speeds because the magnitude of the curve is far greater at hypersonic speeds.[13]

Propulsion

[edit]

Controlled detonation

[edit]

Researchers in China used shock waves in a detonation chamber to compress ionizedargon plasma waves moving at Mach 14. The waves were directed intomagnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generators to create a current pulse that could be increased to gigawatt scale, given enough argon gas.[19]

Rotating detonation

[edit]
This section is an excerpt fromRotating detonation engine.[edit]
Conceptual animation of RDE flow field byOak Ridge National Laboratory.

Arotating detonation engine (RDE) uses a form ofpressure gain combustion, where one or moredetonations continuously travel around anannular channel.[20] Computational simulations and experimental results have shown that the RDE has potential in transport and other applications.[21][22]

In detonative combustion, the flame front expands atsupersonic speed. It is theoretically up to 25% more efficient than conventionaldeflagrative combustion,[23] potentially enabling increased fuel efficiency.[24][25]

Disadvantages include instability and noise.[citation needed]

Hybrid

[edit]

Companies such asHermeus, Venus Aerospace, and AstroMechanica are developing hybrid engines capable of operating from subsonic to hypersonic speeds.

Hybrid engines
Company0-33-45+
Hermeus[26]Precooled P&W F100 turbojetDiveRamjet
Venus Aerospace[26]Rotating detonationRamjetRamjet
AstroMechanica[27]TurbofanTurbojetRamjet

Applications

[edit]

Shipping

[edit]

See:SR-72,§ Mayhem

Transport consumes energy for three purposes: overcoming gravity, overcoming air/water friction, and achieving terminal velocity. Hypersonics addresses all three. Proponents claim that the net energy costs of hypersonic transport can be lower than those of conventional transport while slashing journey times.[28]

Stratolaunch Roc has been used to test hypersonic aircraft.[29]

Hermeus demonstrated transition fromturbojet operation toramjet operation on 17 November 2022,[30] without using a rocket or scramjet.[31]

Weapons

[edit]

Main article:Hypersonic weapon
Hypersonic weapon, demonstrating itsnon-parabolic trajectory (denoted in red), has a distinctive signature which is being tracked by one of the layers of theNational Defense Space Architecture (§ NDSA) beginning in 2021. Tranche 0 is to begin deployment in 2022.[32]
  • The satellites of the NDSA, in gray, are to be deployed in constellations orbiting Earth, and constantly keep Earth in their view, depicted by the blue cones representing the fields of view of the satellite constellations. The satellites are to intercommunicate and serve the defensive systems arrayed against enemy hypersonic vehicles, and build akill chain against them.
  • Conversely, the same satellites can be used to track friendly hypersonic weapons and perform battle damage assessment of their strikes against targets.SeeJADC2 (Joint all-domain command and control)

Two main types of hypersonic weapons arehypersonic cruise missiles andhypersonic glide vehicles.[b][37] Scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missiles are limited to below 30 km (19 mi);[c] while hypersonic glide vehicles can travel higher.

Hypersonic vehicles travel much slower thanballistic (i.e. sub-orbital or fractional orbital) missiles, because they travel in the atmosphere, while ballistic missiles travel in the vacuum above the atmosphere. However, they can use the atmosphere to manoeuvre, enabling large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory.[11] Hypersonic glide vehicles are typically launched with a ballistic first stage, then deploys wings and switch to hypersonic flight upon re-entering the atmosphere, allowing the final stage to evade missile defense systems that were designed for purely ballistic missiles.[40]

National efforts

[edit]

Russia and China lead in hypersonic weapon development, trailed by the United States and other countries.[41][42][43][8][44]

China
[edit]

China's XingKong-2 (星空二号,Starry-sky-2)waverider first flew on 3 August 2018.[45][46][47][48] In August 2021 China launched a boost-glide vehicle to low-earth orbit, circling Earth before maneuvering toward its target location, missing by two dozen miles.[49][50] However China claimed that the vehicle was a spacecraft, and not a missile.[51]

On July 2021 China tested a spaceplane.[52][53][54] An orbital trajectory would take 90 minutes for a spaceplane to circle Earth (which would defeat the mission of a weapon in hypersonic flight).[52]The Pentagon reported in October 2021 that two such hypersonic launches had occurred; one did not demonstrate the accuracy needed for a precision weapon;[49] the second demonstrated its ability to change trajectories.[55]

In 2022, China unveiled two more hypersonic models.[56][57] An AI simulation reported that a Mach 11 aircraft can outrun a Mach 1.3 fighter attempting to engage it, while firing its missile at the "pursuing" fighter. This strategy entails a fire control system to accomplish an over-the-shoulder missile launch, which did not exist as of 2023.[58]

In February 2023, theDF-27 covered 1,900 km (1,200 mi) in 12 minutes, according toleaked secret documents. The capability directly threatens Guam, and US Navy aircraft carriers.[59]

Russia
[edit]

In 2016, Russia is believed to have conducted two successful tests ofAvangard, a hypersonic glide vehicle. The third known test, in 2017, failed.[60] In 2018, an Avangard was launched at theDombarovskiy missile base, reaching its target at theKura shooting range, a distance of 5,955 km (3,700 mi).[61] Avangard used composite materials to withstand temperatures of up to 2,000 °C (3,630 °F), which it experienced at hypervelocity[62] Russia considered its initialcarbon fiber solution to be unreliable,[63] and replaced it with new composite materials.[62] Two Avangard hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs)[64] were mounted onSS-19 ICBMs. On 27 December 2019 one was fielded to the Yasnensky Missile Division, a unit in theOrenburg Oblast.[65]In 2021 Russia launched a3M22 Zircon antiship missile (standoff strike weapon) over theWhite Sea, as part of a series of tests.[66][67] In February 2022, a coordinated series of missile exercises, some hypersonic, were launched on 18 February 2022 in an apparent display ofpower projection. The launch platforms ranged from submarines in theBarents Sea, as well as from ships on theBlack Sea south of Russia. The exercise included aRS-24 YarsICBM, which was launched from thePlesetsk Cosmodrome inNorthern Russia and reached its destination on theKamchatka Peninsula inEastern Russia.[68] Ukraine estimated a3M22 Zircon was used against it, but it apparently did not exceed Mach 3 and was shot down 7 February 2024 in Kyiv.[69]

United States
[edit]
See also:Prompt Global Strike

The US launched a joint program across the entireDepartment of Defense to advance its hypersonic missile development around 2018.[70][78] Russian and Chinese tests prompted US responses.[79] By 2018, theAGM-183[80] andLong-Range Hypersonic Weapon[81] were in development.[82] At least one vendor was developing ceramics to handle the temperatures of hypersonic systems.[83] Over a dozen US hypersonic projects were active as of 2018.[82][84][81][85][86][87][88][89] The bulk of the hypersonics work remains at the Joint level.[94] The Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF) CFT supportsSpace and Missile Defense Command's pursuit of hypersonics.[97][98] The Army and Navy's Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) successfully tested a prototype in March 2020.[99]

[93] In 2021 a wind tunnel for testing hypersonic vehicles was completed in Texas.[101] The Army's Land-based Hypersonic Missile was intended to have a range of 2,300 km (1,400 mi).[102]: 6 [77][103][104][105][106] By adding rocket propulsion to a shell or glide body, the joint effort shaved five years off the likely fielding time.[107][108] Hypersonics countermeasures require sensor data fusion: both radar and infrared sensor tracking data are required to capture the signature of a hypersonic vehicle in the atmosphere.[113] Privately developed hypersonic systems were under development.[114] Critics offered opinions.[115][116]

DoD tested a Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) in 2020.[99][117] The Air Force dropped out of the tri-service hypersonic project in 2020.[118][119][120] Air Force chief scientist, Dr.Greg Zacharias stated that the US anticipated having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s,[121] hypersonic drones by the 2030s, and recoverable hypersonic drone aircraft by the 2040s.[122] DoD development focused on air-breathingboost-glide hypersonics systems.[123] Countering hypersonic weapons during their cruise phase requires longer-range radar, as well as space-based sensors, and systems for tracking and fire control.[123][124][109][125]

On 21 October 2021, the Pentagon stated that a test of a hypersonic glide body failed because its booster failed.[126] The test occurred atPacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska, on Kodiak island.[127] Threerocketsondes atWallops Island completed successful tests earlier that week.[127] On 29 October 2021, the booster for theLong-Range Hypersonic Weapon (LRHW) passed a static test; the first stage thrust vector control system was included.[128] On 26 October 2022,Sandia National Laboratories successfully tested hypersonic technologies.[129][130] On 28 June 2024, DoD announced a successful end-to-end test of the US Army's LRHW all-up round (AUR) and the US Navy's Conventional Prompt Strike. The missile was launched from thePacific Missile Range Facility, Kauai, Hawaii.[131]In September 2021, and in March 2022,Raytheon/Northrop Grumman,[128][132][133] andLockheed[134][135] respectively, successfully tested theirDARPA-funded air-launched, scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missiles.[c] In September 2022 Raytheon was selected to field their scramjet-powered hypersonic missileHypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM), by FY2027.[136][137]

In March 2024,Stratolaunch Roc launched TA-1, a vehicle that approached Mach 5 at 10.67 km (6.63 mi) in a powered flight, a risk-reduction exercise for TA-2.[138] In a similar development, Castelion launched its low-cost hypersonic platform in theMojave desert in March 2024.[139]

In 2021, DoD was codifying flight test guidelines, knowledge gained from Conventional Prompt Strike (CPS), and other hypersonics programs,[140] for some70 hypersonics R&D programs.[141][142] In 2021–2023,Heidi Shyu, theUnder Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering pursued a program of annual rapid joint experiments,[143] including hypersonics capabilities, to bring down the cost of development.[144][145] Hypersonic test beds were targeting test frequency of one per week.[146][147]

Iran
[edit]

In 2022, Iran was believed to have constructed a hypersonic missile.Amir Ali Hajizadeh, the commander of the Air Force of theIslamic Republic of Iran's Revolutionary Guards Corps, announced the construction of their first hypersonic missile.[148] with a speed above Mach 13.[149][150]

Other programs
[edit]

France,[151]Australia,[151]India,[152]Germany,[151]Japan,[151]South Korea,[153] andNorth Korea,[154] have hypersonic weapon projects/research programs.[151]

As of 202 Australia and the US jointly develop air-launched hypersonic missiles. The development was to build on the $54 million Hypersonic International Flight Research Experimentation (HIFiRE) under which both nations collaborated on over a 15-year period.[155] Companies were expected to contribute to the development of these missiles,[156] named SCIFIRE in 2022.[157][136]

Defenses

[edit]

In May 2023 Ukraine shot down aKinzhal with aPatriot missile.[158] IBCS, or theIntegrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System is designed to work with Patriots and other missiles.

Rand 2017 assessment

[edit]

In 2017Rand Corporation estimated that in less than a decade, hypersonic missiles would proliferate.[159] In the same way thatanti-ballistic missiles were developed ascountermeasures toballistic missiles, countermeasures to Hypersonics were not in development as of 2019.[11][160][63][161] $157.4 million was allocated in the FY2020 Pentagon budget for hypersonic defense, out of $2.6 billion for all hypersonic-related research.[102] $207 million of the FY2021 budget was allocated to defensive hypersonics.[141][162][76] Both the US and Russia withdrew from theIntermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in February 2019.[163][164][165] By 2021 theMissile Defense Agency was funding regional countermeasures against hypersonic weapons in theirglide phase.[166][167][168][169][170][171] CSIS assessed that hypersonic defense should be take US priority over hypersonic weapons.[172][d][173][174]

NDSA / PWSA

[edit]

As part of their hypersonic vehicle tracking mission, theSpace Development Agency (SDA) launched four satellites and theMissile Defense Agency (MDA) launched two satellites in 2024.[175][176] The satellites shared the same orbit, which allowed the SDA's wide field of view (WFOV) satellites and the MDA's medium field of view (MFOV) downward-looking satellites to traverse the same terrain. The SDA's four satellites are part of its Tranche 0 tracking layer (T0TL). The MDA's two satellites are HBTSS or Hypersonic and ballistic tracking space sensors.[e]

Additional capabilities ofTranche 0 of the National defense space architecture (NDSA), also known as the Proliferated warfighting space architecture (PWSA) will be tested.[176][181]

Proposed

[edit]

Aircraft

[edit]
Artist depiction of theHalcyon commercial hypersonic transport aircraft proposed by theHermeus corporation in flight.

Bombers

[edit]
  • United States Expendable Hypersonic Air-Breathing Multi-Mission Demonstrator ("Mayhem")[217] Based on§ HAWC and HSSW: "solid rocket-boosted, air-breathing, hypersonic conventional cruise missile", a follow-on toAGM-183A. As of 2020 no design work had been done. By 2022 Mayhem was to be tasked withISR and strike missions,[218] as a possible bomber.[219][220]Leidos is preparing a system requirements review, and a conceptual design for these missions.[221]Draper Labs has begun a partnership with Leidos.[220]Kratos is preparing a conceptual design for Mayhem, usingAir Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) digital engineering techniques in a System design agent team, a collaboration with Leidos,Calspan, and Draper.[222] DIU is soliciting additional Hypersonic and High-Cadence Airborne Testing Capabilities (HyCAT), for Mayhem.[223]

Cruise missiles

[edit]
  • United StatesAdvanced Hypersonic Weapon (AHW)[224]
  • United StatesHypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC, pronounced "hawk"). September 2021: HAWC is DARPA-funded. Built by Raytheon and Northrop Grumman, HAWC is the first USscramjet-powered hypersonic missile to complete a free flight test in the 2020s.[225][226][128][132][227][102] DARPA's goals for the test, which were successfully met, were: "vehicle integration and release sequence, safe separation from the launch aircraft, booster ignition and boost, booster separation and engine ignition, and cruise".[128] HAWC is capable of sustained, powered maneuver in the atmosphere.[133]: minute 0:55  HAWC appears to depend on a rocket booster to accelerate to scramjet velocities operating in an oxygen-rich environment.[228][229] It is easier to put a seeker on a sub-sonic air-breathing vehicle.[230] In March 2022 a HAWC Scramjet was successfully tested in an air-launched flight.[134][135] On 18 July 2022 Raytheon announced another successful test of its Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) scramjet, in free flight.[128][231] MoHAWC is a follow-on to DARPA's HAWC project.[232]
  • United States Hypersonic Conventional Strike Weapon (HCSW - pronounced "hacksaw")[120] passed its critical design review (CDR) but this IDIQ (indefinite duration, indefinite quantity)[233] contract was terminated in favor of ARRW because twice as many ARRWs fit on a bomber.[234]
  • FranceASN4G (air-launched, scramjet-powered, hypersonic cruise missile under development byMBDA France and theONERA to succeed theASMP)[235][236]
  • Soviet UnionKh-45 (cancelled)
  • RussiaZircon[237][238]
  • IndiaHypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle
  • India/RussiaBrahmos-II
  • South Korea Hycore[153]

Glide vehicles

[edit]
  • United StatesAGM-183A air launched rapid response weapon (ARRW, pronounced "arrow")[227][239][102][240] Telemetry data was successfully transmitted from ARRW —AGM-183A IMV-2 (Instrumented Measurement Vehicle) to Point Mugu ground stations, demonstrating the ability to accurately broadcast radio at hypersonic speeds;[241][242] however, ARRW's launch sequence was not completed.[89][243][244] Hundreds of ARRWs or other Hypersonic weapons are sought by the Air Force.[245] On 9 March 2022 Congress halved funding for ARRW and transferred the balance to ARRW's R&D account to allow for further testing, which puts the procurement contract at risk.[246] Production decision on ARRW was delayed for a year to complete flight testing.[247][248] On 14 May 2022 an ARRW flight test was completed for the first time,[249][250] followed by two others. The Air Force required 3 additional successful tests of an All-Up Round (AUR) before making a production decision.[251] The USAF intended to end the ARRW development program, as of 29 March 2023.[252][253][137][254][255] A B-52 flying out of Anderson AFB in Guam fired an ARRW; the AUR was tested in the Pacific on 17 March 2024.[256] No production decision was made in 2024.[231]
  • United States DARPA Tactical Boost Glide vehicle[257][258]

[259][260]

Flown

[edit]

Aircraft

[edit]

Glide vehicles

[edit]

Spaceplanes

[edit]

Cancelled

[edit]

Aircraft

[edit]

Glide vehicles

[edit]
  • France VERAS (hypersonic glide vehicle program launched in 1965 and cancelled in 1971)[285][286]

Spaceplanes

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Ning describes a method for interrelating Reynolds number with Mach number.[10]
  2. ^"[N]on-nuclear capabilities may be able to complement nuclear forces in strategic deterrence plans"—The 2022Nuclear Posture Review[33]: 33–62  as cited by Loren Thompson.[34] Thus non-nuclear hypersonics serve as proportionate deterrent layers in thedefense strategy of the United States.[33][35][36]
  3. ^abAccording to Alex Hollings, as 21 March 2022 no nation has yet successfully fielded ascramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missile, including Russia's3M22 Zircon.[38]: minute 10:14  However, tests of DARPA's Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) have now succeeded, using designs by two different vendors in September 2021, and March 2022 respectively.[39]
  4. ^In the CSIS report and discussion of Hypersonic missile defense, one of the panelists, Kelley M. Sayler (Congressional Research Service) summarized the situation (as of 7 February 2022) and quoted Michael Griffin's assessment that Hypersonic cruise missiles are 10 to 20 times dimmer than ballistic missiles.[172]: min 19:00–21:00 [173]
  5. ^Space development agency (SDA) provides the PWSA wide field of view (WFOV) sensors;Missile defense agency (MDA) provides theHypersonic and Ballistic Tracking Space Sensor (HBTSS) sensors, (i.e., the Medium Field of View (MFOV) sensors). The WFOV sensors provide cueing data to the MFOV sensors, which are more sensitive and provide tipping data to theearth-based interceptors.[177] as cited in USNI News.[178] Two WFOV satellites were launched as part of the inititial Tranche 0.[179][180]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Uppal, Rajesh."Hypersonic Aircraft race for commercial and military".International Defense Security & Technology. Retrieved2 January 2025.
  2. ^Winter, Frank (3 August 2000)."V-2 missile".Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. airandspace.si.edu. Archived fromthe original on 4 January 2017. Retrieved16 August 2018.
  3. ^"View of the Earth From the Freedom 7 Mercury Capsule - NASA". Retrieved12 July 2025. Altitude reached: 116 miles, velocity reached: 5134 mph, or Mach 8.5
  4. ^White, Robert."Across the Hypersonic Divide".HistoryNet. HistoryNet LLC. Retrieved11 October 2015.
  5. ^"Hypersonic plane passes latest test". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). 22 March 2010. Archived fromthe original on 18 July 2012. Retrieved18 February 2014.
  6. ^Gibbs, Yvonne (13 August 2015)."NASA Dryden Fact Sheets - X-15 Hypersonic Research Program".NASA.
  7. ^abEggers, Alfred J.; Julian, H.; Neice, Allen (10 December 1954)."A comparative analysis of the performance of long-range hypervelocity vehicles" NACA report 1382"(PDF). pp. 1141–1160.
  8. ^abIn, for exampleWaverider hypersonic weapons delivery, China has flown a Mach 5.5 vehicle for 400 seconds, at 30 km altitude, demonstrating large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory, as well as recovery of the payload. SeeCurrent test targets, such as"Zombie Pathfinder".www.army.mil. 16 December 2016. Retrieved12 July 2025. are not hypersonic.RAND (28 September 2017).Hypersonic Missile Nonproliferation. Retrieved12 July 2025 – via YouTube. estimates that in less than a decadeHypersonic Missile proliferation will be in full swing.
  9. ^"MIT "Fluids" 1. Effects of Reynolds Number 2. Effects of Mach Number"(PDF). Retrieved9 October 2020.
  10. ^Ning, Andrew."Matching Mach and Reynolds Number"(PDF). Retrieved9 October 2020.
  11. ^abcMacias, Amanda (21 March 2018)."Russia and China are 'aggressively developing' hypersonic weapons — here's what they are and why the US can't defend against them".CNBC. Retrieved11 July 2025.
  12. ^Keller, Jared (15 September 2020)."Watch the Air Force use a hypersonic bullet to blast a drone out of the sky".
  13. ^abcdAnderson (Jr.), John David; Bowden, Mary L. (2021).Introduction to Flight. McGraw-Hill.ISBN 978-1-264-36340-7.
  14. ^abcDarwent, B. deB. (January 1970)."Table of Bond Dissociation Energies in Simple Molecules] BDE: bond dissociation enthalpy"(PDF).
  15. ^Clark, Jim (3 October 2013)."Bond Enthalpies".Chemistry LibreTexts. Retrieved12 July 2025.
  16. ^Tegler, Jan (4 October 2019)."Research at Hyper Speed: The Pentagon's Research Laboratories Are Working Flat Out to Develop Hypersonic Weapons Technology".Issuu. Retrieved12 July 2025. operating at 8,000 K (7,730 °C; 13,940 °F)
  17. ^Capaccio, Anthony (28 March 2023)."U.S. Hypersonic Missile Test Marred by In-Flight Data Loss". ARRW plagued by loss of telemetry data in the latest test
  18. ^"Mach Angle". Glenn Research Center, NASA. 6 April 2018.
  19. ^"China Built a Hypersonic Generator That Could Power Unimaginable Weapons".Popular Mechanics. 6 February 2023. Retrieved11 July 2025.
  20. ^"More power, no moving parts: The quest to fly a rotating detonation engine".
  21. ^Lu, Frank; Braun, Eric (7 July 2014). "Rotating Detonation Wave Propulsion: Experimental Challenges, Modelling, and Engine Concepts".Journal of Propulsion and Power.30 (5). The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics:1125–1142.doi:10.2514/1.B34802.S2CID 73520772.
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Further reading

[edit]
  • David Wright and Cameron Tracy, "Over-hyped: Physics dictates thathypersonic weapons cannot live up to the grand promises made on their behalf",Scientific American, vol. 325, no. 2 (August 2021), pp. 64–71. Quote from p. 71: "Failure to fully assess [the potential benefits and costs of hypersonic weapons] is a recipe for wasteful spending and increased global risk."

External links

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