 Frederic at peak intensity near landfall onDauphin Island on September 12 | |
| Meteorological history | |
|---|---|
| Formed | August 29, 1979 (1979-08-29) |
| Dissipated | September 15, 1979 (1979-09-15) |
| Category 4 major hurricane | |
| 1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS) | |
| Highest winds | 130 mph (215 km/h) |
| Lowest pressure | 943mbar (hPa); 27.85 inHg |
| Overall effects | |
| Fatalities | 12 |
| Damage | $1.77 billion (1979USD) |
| Areas affected | |
IBTrACS | |
Part of the1979 Atlantic hurricane season | |
Hurricane Frederic, known in Latin America asFederico,[1] was an intense and destructivetropical cyclone that carved a path of destruction from theLesser Antilles toQuebec, in particular devastating areas of theUnited States Gulf Coast. Though only five were killed directly, theUS$1.77 billion (equivalent to $6.2 billion in 2024) in damage accrued by Frederic made it theAtlantic basin'scostliest tropical cyclone on record at the time. Prior to its finallandfall, the threat that Frederic imposed on areas of the U.S. Gulf Coast triggered a mass exodus from the region larger than any other evacuation in the past. While the storm primarily impacted theU.S. states ofMississippi andAlabama, lesser effects were felt throughout theGreater and Lesser Antilles, as well as inland North America.
Frederic was the thirteenth tropical cyclone, sixth named storm, third hurricane, and second major hurricane of the1979 Atlantic hurricane season. It developed from atropical depression south of theCape Verde Islands on August 28.[nb 1] Tracking at a steady clip westward, the primitive cyclone reachedtropical storm intensity the next day. Favorable conditions in the open Atlantic allowed for Frederic to reach hurricane intensity on September 1. However,outflow from nearbyHurricane David began to inhibit further intensification and would continue to do so for roughly a week, weakening Frederic as it tracked across the Greater Antilles. The tropical cyclone nearly dissipated overCuba before redeveloping on September 9 near theIsle of Youth. From then on, Frederic moved northwestward, intensifying to its peak intensity in theGulf of Mexico with winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) on September 12, shortly before making landfall atDauphin Island, Alabama just below the state line between Alabama and Mississippi. Over the United States, Frederic weakened for a final time before becomingextratropical inPennsylvania on September 14 and dissipating the next day.
Damage estimates vary due to inadequate reporting of private insurance claims as well as lack of hard data on uninsured damage; Frederic is believed to have inflicted $5 million (1979 USD) in both Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, with an additional $1.7 billion in damage on the mainland United States.FEMA, which had been established only three months before Frederic hit, was the focal point for nearly $250 million in federal aid for recovery, $188 million of which went to Alabama (1979 USD). In southern Alabama, the landscape was changed for years, with thousands of tall pine trees tilted and leaning northwest.[2]
Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depressionThe precursor to Hurricane Frederic emerged as a loosely definedtropical wave off the west coast of Africa late on August 27. The following day, satellite images indicated that the tropical wave had become more defined, and was beginning to show signs ofcyclonic rotation. At 0600 UTC on August 29, theNational Hurricane Center (NHC) classified the system as atropical depression based on observational data from ships nearby in conjunction with satellite images.[3][4] Upondeveloping into a tropical cyclone, the depression moved at an unusually rapid pace westward, gradually curving towards the west-northwest and slowly intensifying in ideal conditions. At 1200 UTC on August 30,[4] the tropical depression was upgraded totropical storm status and thusnamedFrederic.[3] Intensification continued after the storm's upgrade, and early on September 1, Frederic developed aneye, prompting the NHC to further upgrade the tropical cyclone to hurricane status at 0600 UTC that day.[3][4]
Frederic only maintained hurricane intensity for roughly eighteen hours over the open waters of the Atlantic on September 1 beforeoutflow from nearbyHurricane David began to adversely affect the tropical cyclone.[3][4] At 0000 UTC on September 2, Frederic weakened back to tropical storm strength while it was still well east of theLesser Antilles. This weakening phase continued as Frederic began to assume a more westerly track and slow in forward motion.[3] On September 4, Frederic tracked over theVirgin Islands before makinglandfall onPuerto Rico later that day withmaximum sustained winds of 50 mph (80 km/h).[4] Frederic's interaction with Puerto Rico greatly disrupted the low-level circulation contained within the tropical cyclone, enhancing the weakening effects of Hurricane David's outflow. After passing over the island, the tropical storm briefly took a southwest course before curving intoHispaniola on September 6, inducing additional disruption within Frederic. At 1800 UTC that day, Frederic was downgraded to tropical depression status north ofHaiti.[3] Frederic remained a tropical depression for two days as it tracked into and then parallel to the southern coast ofCuba beginning on September 7.[4] During this time, Hurricane David had tracked far into theNortheastern United States, and as a result its inhibiting effects of intensification ceased.[3] At 0000 UTC on September 9,[4] Frederic regained tropical storm intensity while located roughly 100 mi (160 km)/h) east of theIsle of Youth. The following day, the cyclone tracked over western Cuba as it gradually curved towards the northwest.[4]
Favorable conditions, marked by very warmsea surface temperatures as high as 86 °F (30 °C) and the presence of a largeanticyclone over the system, allowed Frederic to strengthen to hurricane status for a second time while just northwest of Cuba, despite proximity to land.[3] Frederic took a northwesterly course throughout its trek across theGulf of Mexico in early September, intensifying in a highly conducive environment.[3] By 1800 UTC on September 10, the hurricane became stronger than it had ever been over the central Atlantic. At 0000 UTC on September 12, Frederic attainedmajor hurricane status over the easternGulf of Mexico, and twelve hours later reached peak intensity with a minimumbarometric pressure of 943 mbar (hPa; 27.85 inHg) and sustained winds of 130 mph (210 km/h),[nb 2] making the cyclone a Category 4 hurricane on theSaffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.[4] Moving gradually faster in the Gulf of Mexico,[3] Frederic eventually made two landfalls – one onDauphin Island and the other near the border betweenAlabama andMississippi – with a virtually unchanged intensity.[4][6] Tracking rapidly northward, Frederic began to weaken due to land interaction, and was downgraded to tropical storm status while it was nearMeridian, Mississippi on September 13.[3] At around the same time, the cyclone began to curve northeastward,[4] eventually merging with anextratropical cyclone in southwesternPennsylvania by 1800 UTC on September 14. These extratropical remnants proceeded to track through theMid-Atlantic states andNew England before they were last officially documented by the NHC inNew Brunswick on September 15.[3][4] However, theCanadian Hurricane Centre still considered the cyclone active up until the storm entered theLabrador Sea on September 16.[7]
The firsttropical cyclone watches and warnings issued in association with Frederic were on September 3, when the National Hurricane Center issued ahurricane warning andgale warning for several islands of theLesser Antilles stretching fromDominica to the northernLeeward Islands.[8] Residents ofCharlotte Amalie in theUnited States Virgin Islands were urged by governorJuan Francisco Luis to move to 24 emergency shelters.[9] Luis also mobilized a company of theVirgin Islands National Guard to expedite evacuations and protect emptied residences and other buildings from looting.[10] Further south inDominica,Melville Hall Airport was forced to close due to the presence of gale-force winds, delaying relief efforts following Hurricane David.[11]
Despite having weakened to a tropical storm by the time Frederic moved over the Virgin Islands, the National Hurricane Center issued ahurricane watch for Puerto Rico on September 4.[12] As precautionary measures, theLuis Muñoz Marín International Airport and schools closed for the duration of the storm.[10] Hundreds of residents were ordered to evacuate fromToa Baja for the second time in just four days due to the threat of flooding rivers.[13] InTrujillo Alto, a dike was relieved in order to mitigate potential flooding.[14] After its track across Puerto Rico, gale warnings were issued for portions of theDominican Republic andHaiti, as well as theTurks and Caicos Islands.[15] No watches or warnings were issued by the NHC for any areas while Frederic was classified as a tropical depression over the Greater Antilles.[16] However, small craft warnings were posted for some coastal regions off ofMiami, Florida due to strong winds caused by the nearby tropical cyclone.[17]
After Frederic reattained hurricane status in the Gulf of Mexico on September 10, a gale warning were issued for theDry Tortugas; this was the first NHC warning issued in association with the newly developed tropical cyclone.[4][16] Not long after, a hurricane watch was issued for coastal areas extending fromPanama City, Florida toVermilion Bay inLouisiana.[16] Although forecasts showed that Frederic posed no threat toSarasota, Florida, the city readied barrels of water if distribution was necessitated toSarasota County's 58 emergency shelters. Municipality managers were asked to place their respective emergency personnel on standby.[18] InKey West, Florida, city workers had shortened workdays while the storm moved close by.[19]
Up to 500,000 were evacuated from the U.S. Gulf Coast in anticipation of Frederic's arrival.[citation needed]
Effects from Frederic were first felt on the outward facing Leeward Islands. InAntigua, the threat of widespreadpower outages forced the insular government to shut down power.[20][12] A peak gust of 62 mph (100 km/h) was documented on the island as a result of the storm.[3] These strong winds also unroofed some buildings.[10] Strong winds and rain were felt inGuadeloupe,Barbuda, and a number of other islands, but no damaging effects from the passing tropical cyclone occurred in those locations.[20]
InSt. Maarten, these strong winds toppled aradio antenna.[9] Flowing floodwaters washed away plentiful food crops in the island.[10] Some homes were damaged and others destroyed on the adjacentSint Maarten.[13] Off of the island, seven Japanese people were killed after their fishing boat sank during the storm.[3]
Power outages knocked out electricity to half ofTortola in theBritish Virgin Islands and downed telephone lines. Rainfall and downed trees blocked several roads.[21] Offshore, theyachtPrincess blew out into sea, prompting a coast guard rescue of the ship and its crew.[10]
As a tropical storm,[4] Frederic dropped heavy rain across the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Despite having weakened from its prior hurricane intensity, the storm still broughtgale-force winds coupled with gusts as strong as 70 mph (110 km/h) to the area.[3] Three apartments in the same apartment complex onSt. Thomas were unroofed, displacing roughly 50 families.[22] Electricity was deliberately cut during the late night hours to prevent the spread of power outages.[14] The entirety of the U.S. Virgin Islands reported numerous felled trees and downed utility lines as a result of the strong winds. Wind damage on nearby Puerto Rico was of only minor extent and much less severe than in the Virgin Islands.[22] However, torrential precipitation accounted for most of the damage, as the passage of Hurricane David less than a week earlier saturated soils, priming the area for floods induced by the passage of Frederic. Rainfall peaked at around 10 in (250 mm) in 12 hours in Puerto Rico and 24.04 in (611 mm) in 30 hours inSt. Croix.[3][23]
All rivers in southeastern Puerto Rico swelled and produce significant flooding in adjacent floodplains. Thedischarge of theRio Santiago nearNaguabo reached100-year levels. These floods partially inundated several cities, submerged crops, and damaged numerous roads. Major arterial roads to and fromPonce were blocked by floodwater and landslide debris. Some portions ofPuerto Rico Highway 3 were submerged by water from both the torrential rain and wave action. Damage from Frederic in Puerto Rico reached at least US$5 million, though western Puerto Rico sustained minimal damage from the storm. In St. Thomas, four small homes were destroyed by flooding, and an additional 50 sustained at least partial damage. Onewaterspout was reported off the coast, but did no damage. Normally drycoastal guts in St. Croix filled with floodwater from Frederic, damaging homes and other buildings in five communities on St. Croix. Culverts, bridges, and heavybeach erosion resulted from rough surf off the coast of the island. The floods generated various sewage problems.[22] Damage in Virgin Islands also reached at least US$5 million, similar to Puerto Rico.[22]
Heavy rains buffeted the islands ofHispaniola and Cuba for several days as Frederic, albeit disorganized,[24] tracked over theGreater Antilles. As with Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles, precipitation damage was exacerbated by the recent passage of Hurricane David. InGuantánamo on Cuba's eastern Atlantic coast, at least 6.88 in (175 mm) of rainfall was reported. Frederic continued to produce strong winds even as a weak tropical depression south of Cuba, as sustained winds of 46 mph (74 km/h) were clocked inSanta Cruz del Sur on September 7. However, damage from Frederic in Hispaniola and eastern Cuba remained minimal.[3]
Frederic's landfall on western Cuba as a redeveloped tropical cyclone was much more significant than its first Cuban landfall. Sustained winds peaked at 52 mph (84 km/h) inBahía Honda, Cuba on September 10.[3] Despite recent renovations atJosé Martí International Airport, the lack of a proper drainage system allowed rainfall to inundate the airport, stranding several heads of state that were scheduled to hold asummit and disrupting air traffic to and from the airport for an entire week.[25] Heavy precipitation triggered numerous landslides, causing severe damage to infrastructure and over 250 dwellings. Areas at risk for additional landslide activity were declared inhospitable, resulting in the evacuation of 1,200 people.[26] Rainfall estimates in Cuba peaked at 5 in (130 mm).[27] A lack of damage reports was evident from western Cuba following Frederic's landfall, though damage estimates were high.[3]
Storm surge damage was reported along 80 miles of coastline fromMississippi to Florida, with tides 8 to 12 feet (2.4 to 3.7 m) above the normal level being observed. Five deaths were directly attributed to Frederic in the United States, four of which occurred inland: a person swept from a boat nearPensacola was the only casualty along the coast.[3] In total, Frederic was responsible for $1.7 billion in damages.[28] This made Frederic the costliest hurricane in the history of the United States at the time; the figure was not surpassed untilHurricane Alicia in 1983.[29] Frederic also dumped heavy rainfall across much of the eastern United States. Over a dozen tornadoes were also reported in Frederic's wake. However, these had minimal impact.[30]
As Frederic was strengthening in the Gulf of Mexico, strong winds were reported in theFlorida Keys. A station on the Dry Tortugas recorded a 58 mph (93 km/h) wind gust on September 10; this was stronger than any other Florida wind gust measurement in association with Frederic. A station in Key West, Florida clocked at 43 mph (69 km/h) wind gust, coupled with sustained winds of 29 mph (47 km/h).[3] Tides in the Dry Tortugas peaked at 15 ft (4.6 m), roughly 12 ft (3.7 m) above normal.[18][31] Rainfall from the extremities of the hurricane reachedSouth Florida,[32] with some rainfall totals exceeding 7 in (180 mm).[23]
Frederic made landfall atDauphin Island, Alabama and continued across to a point on the Alabama/Mississippi state line nearBayou La Batre, Alabama.[33]Near-total property damage occurred along the Alabama coastline betweenFort Morgan andGulf Shores, the latter seeing 80% of its buildings completely destroyed. The causeway linkingDauphin Island to the mainland was swept away in many areas.[29] Alabama's second-largest city (at that time),Mobile, Alabama suffered extensive damage as well. Wind damage was also severe, especially across southern Alabama. Hurricane-force gusts were felt as far inland asChoctaw County. Structural failure was widespread in the immediate landfall area with industrial, residential and governmental buildings as well as hospitals suffering heavy damage. Nearly 90% of the Mobile area lost electricity, and the historic City Hall experienced heavy roof damage. Many small beach houses were completely destroyed by high winds before the storm surge could add any effects.[29][34] Tree damage with broken limbs was extensive, leaving thousands of tall pine trees all tilted, leaning in the direction of the wind.[2] 11 Alabama counties were declared disaster areas.
About 8 to 12 inches (200 to 300 mm) of rain fell inJackson County, Mississippi around Biloxi and Pascagoula. 16 Mississippi counties were declared disaster areas; the most in the United States. Hurricane-force winds were felt as far northward asMeridian, Mississippi.[35]
Frederic dropped heavy rain across Canada as an extratropical storm, peaking at 137 mm (5.4 in) nearOttawa, Ontario. Record precipitation was recorded at theJ. S. Marshall Radar Observatory inSainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, which documented 77 mm (3.0 in) of rain on September 15. Rainfall spread as far northeast as the eastern coast ofLabrador. Flooding occurred in eastern Ontario and portions of theNiagara Peninsula, as noted inCornwall. InToronto, the rains led to a seven-cartraffic collision and a separate car accident that injured two. Flooding also took place in southernQuebec, with floodwater submerging streets, basements, and underground parking lots inMontreal. Damage from southern Quebec reachedC$8.238 million (US$7.095 million).[7]
Eleven counties in Alabama, 16 in Mississippi, and five in Florida were declared eligible for disaster aid.
In retrospect, Frederic has been credited with spurring redevelopment in Mobile and the surrounding Gulf Coast region. For example, in testimony before Congressin 1992, Robert Sheets (then the director of theNational Hurricane Center), described the economic aftermath of Frederic:
Prior to Hurricane Frederic, there was onecondominium complex onGulf Shores, Alabama. Most of the homes were single, individual homes built behind the sand dunes. Today, where there used to be one condominium, there are now at least 104 complexes – not units, complexes – on Gulf Shores, Alabama.
Because of extensive destruction caused by the hurricane, the nameFrederic was retired by theWorld Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1980, and it will not be used again to name a tropical system in the North Atlantic.[36] It was replaced withFabian for the1985 season.[37]
"The New War," the firstMack Bolan novel afterDon Pendleton turned overExecutioner series to Gold Eagle, is set during Hurricane Frederic with the storm's devastation having a major effect on the story.[38]
The Abyss, a novel byOrson Scott Card, made into a 1989 film, directed and written byJames Cameron features Hurricane Frederic, although those events take place 10 years later.
The Elementals, the 1981 novel byMichael McDowell, references Hurricane Frederic in its conclusion.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
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Tropical cyclones of the1979 Atlantic hurricane season | ||
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