At the outbreak ofWorld War I in August 1914, Hungary was part of theDual Monarchy ofAustria-Hungary. Although there are no significant battles specifically connected to Hungarian regiments, the troops suffered high losses throughout the war as the Empire suffered defeat after defeat. The result was the breakup of the Empire and eventually, Hungary suffered severe territorial losses by the closingTrianon Peace Treaty.
In 1914, Austria-Hungary was one of thegreat powers of Europe, with an area of 676,443 km2 and a population of 52 million, of which Hungary had 325,400 km2 with population of 21 million.
By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890 miles). In Western Europe only Germany had more extended railway network (63,378 km, 39,381 mi); the Austro-Hungarian Empire was followed by France (40,770 km, 25,330 mi), the United Kingdom (32,623 km, 20,271 mi), Italy (18,873 km, 11,727 mi) and Spain (15,088 km, 9,375 mi).[1] By 1910, the total length of the rail networks of Hungarian Kingdom reached 22,869 kilometres (14,210 miles), the Hungarian network linked more than 1,490 settlements. Nearly half (52%) of the empire's railways were built in Hungary, thus the railroad density there became higher than that ofCisleithania. This ranked Hungarian railways the 6th most dense in the world (ahead of Germany and France).[2]
The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during World War I.[3] Although the Kingdom of Hungary comprised only 42% of the population of Austria-Hungary,[4] the thin majority – more than 3.8 million soldiers – of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War.
Austria-Hungary was more urbanized (25%)[5] than its main direct opponents in the First World War, like the Russian Empire (13.4%),[6] Serbia (13.2%)[7] and Romania (18.8%).[8] Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire also had a more industrialized economy[9] and higher GDP per capita[10] than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the most developed opponent of the Empire by far.
On 28 June 1914Gavrilo Princip assassinatedArchduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Before entering the war, only the prime minister CountIstván Tisza hesitated, unconvinced that it was the best time to engage in battle. As soon asGermany promised to neutralize theKingdom of Romania and promised that no territories of theKingdom of Serbia would be annexed to Austria-Hungary, he then decided to support the war.
After theultimatum sent to Serbia byFranz Joseph I, the war broke out and soon spread over much of Europe and beyond.
The first line of this multi-ethnic army was based and consisted of:
The second line of the army was themobilized
In 1914, the Austro-Hungarian army was facing its greatest challenge so far in history. After mobilisation, the armed forces were grouped into six armies, totaling 3.2 million soldiers. Between 1914 and 1918, 9 million served in the army (7.8 million in the fighting forces).
In comparison to the other armies of Western Europe, Hungary's experiencedveteran armed forces, technical equipment, and military expenditures were underdeveloped. Theartillery was insufficient, but it was heavily developed later in the war. The correct supply of ammunition was not solved even by the end of the war. The armed forces lacked an adequate air force: it had only 42 military and 40 sport aeroplanes before the war. Unifying the multi-ethnic units was also a serious problem for the military's leaders.
The military forces of Austria-Hungary remained largely unified over the course of the war, in spite of their multi-ethnic nature and some expectations to the contrary. WhileGerman support was undoubtedly critical to the success of various offensives (such as theGorlice–Tarnów offensive and theBattle of Caporetto), the multi-ethnic armies of Austria-Hungary proved fully capable in a defensive role in all the theaters of the war in which they were engaged.
The predominantly ethnic German commanders of the army generally favoured troops of German extraction, but ethnic Hungarian troops were also seen as being reliable and were widely used on the front lines, especially on theRussian front andItalian front. For the most part, troops from other ethnic groups within the empire were less likely to be placed in strategically critical positions and therefore had lower casualties.
Over the course ofWorld War I there was never a documented offensive by purely ethnic Hungarian troops, but such troops did contribute positively to the outcome of various battles, as follows:
The troops raised in theKingdom of Hungary spent little time defending the actual territory of Hungary, with the exceptions of theBrusilov Offensive in June 1916, and a few months later, when theRomanian army invadedTransylvania, both of which were repelled. A small number of troops from Austria-Hungary also fought in more distant theaters of war that are beyond the borders of Austria-Hungary, including theGallipoli campaign, and in theSinai Peninsula andPalestine.
Some military leaders who have received the Commander's Cross of theMilitary Order of Maria Theresa, the most renowned medal:
Out of over 2.2 million men mobilized in Austria-Hungary, more than one million died during the course of the war. In Hungarian areas, this meant a death rate of twenty-eight per thousand persons – a level of loss exceeded within Austria-Hungary only by German Austrians.[11] In comparison to the total army, Hungary's loss ratio was more than any other nation of Austria-Hungary. There could be two possible causes: Hungary was more an agricultural country, where it is easier to mobilize forces, rather than from more industrialized territories (i.e.Bohemia), and secondly, the Hungarian soldiers were considered to be more trustworthy and disciplined than soldiers from other ethnic groups.[12]
In contrast to the cases of Germany, France or Italy, the question of World War I aims of Hungary remains almost unexplored. However, as the Kingdom of Hungary was the most politically stable part of the Habsburg Monarchy, it strongly impacted the Dual Monarchy's war plans. The main concerns of the government in Budapest were directed by fears for the territorial integrity of Hungary. In July 1914, its Prime Minister, István Tisza, convinced the Monarchy's Crown Council not to demand new territories from Serbia. In parallel, the Hungarian opposition secretly informed the Entente that an independent Hungary could be proclaimed, ready to sign a separate peace treaty if her frontiers were guaranteed. An opposition leader, Mihály Károlyi, entered into contacts with Italians, British and French. In the autumn of 1915, with the Austro-Hungarian army's successes, the secessionist moods in Budapest cooled down. Hungarian politicians turned towards the annexation of Northern Serbia, and possibly Montenegro. When Austria envisaged the amalgamation of Poland, Tisza insisted in Vienna to include Bosnia-Hercegovina (and probably Dalmatia) in Hungary. However, when Romania declared war on the Habsburg Monarchy in August 1916, the Tisza government anticipated annexations of Romanian lands, whereas the Hungarian radical opposition in the parliament (independentists, led by Mihály Károlyi), reinforced the separatist propaganda. In March 1917, Tisza proposed to the Crown Council of the Monarchy to divide Romania between Hungary and Russia, leaving a small Romanian buffer State. Yet, according to the Bucharest Peace Treaty (7 May 1918), Romania only ceded the Carpathian mountain passes to Hungary. The next "success" of Hungarian territorial expansionism was the Habsburg approval of the attachment of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia to the Kingdom in October 1918. Expecting the collapse of the Central Powers, Károlyi was allowed by the Emperor-King to form a government in Budapest. This government declared the independence of Hungary on 31 October 1918. However, it did not stop the Entente and its allies from raising territorial claims against Hungary. They finally gave three quarters of pre-war Hungary to surrounding countries by the Peace Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920).[13]
On 11 November 1918,World War I ended for Austria-Hungary, though at the time of the collapse, all forces were standing outside the borders of 1914. With the collapse of the army, Austria-Hungary also collapsed. The political leaders of the ethnic groups of the Kingdom of Hungary called for independentnation-states.
WhenOszkár Jászi became the new Minister for National Minorities of Hungary, he immediately offered democratic referendums for minorities about the disputed borders; however, the political leaders of those minorities refused the very idea of such referendums at theParis peace conference.[14]
By theTreaty of Trianon, signed on 4 June 1920, Hungary lost about two-thirds of her territory and more than half of its population. This was a larger loss of territory than any other country at that time (excluding colonies). Around 8 million Hungarians remained in post-Trianon Hungary, while more than 3 million Hungarians were stranded outside the newly established borders. Newly established countries such asCzechoslovakia,Poland and theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were established, and some already-existing countries extended their territories (Italy andRomania). The southern part of Hungary was given to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Croatia was also incorporated into it after more than 800-year personal union with Hungary. 102,813 square kilometers—the whole of Eastern Hungary andTransylvania—were awarded by the Entente to Romania, more than the remaining area of Hungary itself (93,030 km2). The northern part of Hungary was annexed by the newly created Czechoslovakia.Austria also received territories from Western Hungary.
AfterWorld War I, despite the "self-determination of peoples" idea of the Allied Powers, only one plebiscite was permitted (later known as theSopron plebiscite) to settle disputed borders on the former territory of theKingdom of Hungary,[15] settling a smaller territorial dispute between theFirst Austrian Republic and theKingdom of Hungary. During the Sopron plebiscite in late 1921, the polling stations were supervised by British, French, and Italian army officers of the Allied Powers.[16]
Hungary was crippled after losing its status as a Great Power. The newly created or greatly enlarged states formed theLittle Entente after the war, encircling Hungary in order to make border revision impossible. The Army was reduced to a mere 30,000 troops; Hungary was forbidden to have an air force, tanks, and any sophisticated weapons. The borders were set in such a way that allnatural defense lines were crossed, making the remaining territory vulnerable to invasion.
Tibor Balla (2001). "Magyarország az első világháborúban".The Illustrated History of World War I. By Wiest, Andy. London: Amber Books Ltd., reprint in Hungarian by M-érték Kiadó Kft.ISBN 963-9519-28-6.
