This is alist of digraphs used in variousLatin alphabets. In the list,letters withdiacritics are arranged inalphabetical order according to their base, e.g.⟨å⟩ is alphabetised with⟨a⟩, not at the end of the alphabet, as it would be inDanish,Norwegian andSwedish. Substantially-modified letters, such as⟨ſ⟩ (a variant of⟨s⟩) and⟨ɔ⟩ (based on⟨o⟩), are placed at the end.

Capitalisation only involves the first letter (⟨ch⟩ becomes⟨Ch⟩) unless otherwise stated (⟨ij⟩ becomes⟨IJ⟩ inDutch, anddigraphs markingeclipsis inIrish, are capitalised on the second letter, i.e.⟨mb⟩ becomes⟨mB⟩).

Source:^[1]

⟨ʼb⟩ (capital⟨ʼB⟩) is used inBari for/ɓ/.

⟨ʼd⟩ (capital⟨ʼD⟩) is used in Bari for/ɗ/.

⟨ʼm⟩ is used inthe Wu MiniDict Romanisation fordark oryin tone/m/. It is also often written as/ʔm/.

⟨ʼn⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark/n/.

⟨ʼng⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark/ŋ/.

⟨ʼny⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark/ȵ/.

⟨ʼy⟩ (capital⟨ʼY⟩) is used in Bari andHausa (in Nigeria) for/ʔʲ/, but in Niger, Hausa⟨ʼy⟩ is replaced with⟨ƴ ⟩.

⟨aʼ⟩ is used inTaa for theglottalized orcreaky-voiced vowel/a̰/.

⟨aa⟩ is used inDutch,Finnish and other languages with phonemic long vowels for/aː/. It wasformerly used in Danish and Norwegian (and still is in some proper names) for[ɔ] or[ʌ] (in Danish), until it was replaced with⟨å⟩. There is a ligature⟨Ꜳ⟩. InCantonese romanisations such asJyutping orYale, it is used for/aː/, contrasting with⟨a⟩/ɐ/.

⟨ae⟩ is used inIrish for/eː/ between two "broad" (velarized) consonants, e.g.Gael/ɡeːlˠ/ "aGael".

InLatin,⟨ae⟩ originally represented thediphthong/ae/, before it wasmonophthongized in theVulgar Latin period to/ɛ/; in medieval manuscripts, the digraph was frequently replaced by theligature⟨æ⟩.

In Modern English, Latin loanwords with⟨ae⟩ are generally pronounced with/iː/ (e.g.Caesar), promptingNoah Webster to shorten this to⟨e⟩ in his 1806spelling reform forAmerican English.

InGerman,⟨ae⟩ is a variant of⟨ä⟩ found in some proper names or in contexts where⟨ä⟩ is unavailable.

InDutch,⟨ae⟩ is an old spelling variant of⟨aa⟩ but now only occurs in names of people or (less often) places and in a few loanwords from Greek and Latin.

InZhuang,⟨ae⟩ represents/a/ (⟨a⟩ represents/aː/).

InRevised Romanization of Korean,⟨ae⟩ represents/ɛ/.

⟨ãe⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐ̃ĩ̯/.

⟨ah⟩ is used inTaa for breathy ormurmured/a̤/. InGerman andEnglish it typically represents along vowel/ɑː/.

⟨ai⟩ is used in many languages, typically representing the diphthong/aɪ/. InEnglish, due to theGreat Vowel Shift, it represents/eɪ/ as inpain andrain, while in unstressed syllables it may represent/ə/, e.g.bargain andcertain(ly). InFrench, it represents/ɛ/. In Irish and it represents/a/ between a broad and a slender consonant. InScottish Gaelic, it represents/a/ or/ɛ/ between a broad and a slender consonant, except when preceding word-final or pre-consonant⟨ll, m, nn⟩ (e.g.cainnt/kʰaiɲtʲ/, or pre-consonant⟨bh, mh⟩ (e.g.aimhreit/ˈaivɾʲɪtʲ/. In theKernowek Standard orthography ofCornish, it represents/eː/, mostly in loanwords from English such aspaint.^[1]

⟨aí⟩ is used inIrish for/iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨aî⟩ is used inFrench for/ɛː/, as inaînesse/ɛːnɛs/ ormaître/mɛːtʁ/.

⟨ái⟩ is used in Irish for/aː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨ài⟩ is used in Scottish Gaelic for/aː/ or sometimes/ɛː/, between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨ãi⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐ̃ĩ̯/, usually spelt⟨ãe⟩.

⟨am⟩ is used in Portuguese for/ɐ̃ũ̯/ word finally,/ɐ̃/ before a consonant, and/am/ before a vowel. In French, it represents/ɑ̃/ in lieu of⟨an⟩ before⟨b, m, p⟩.

⟨âm⟩ is used in Portuguese for astressed/ɐ̃/ before a consonant.

⟨an⟩ is used in many languages to write anasal vowel. In Portuguese it is used for/ɐ̃/ before a consonant. In French it represents/ɑ̃/ (/an/ before a vowel). InBreton it represents/ɑ̃n/.

⟨aⁿ⟩ is used inHokkienPe̍h-ōe-jī for/ã/.

⟨ân⟩ is used in Portuguese for astressed/ɐ̃/ before a consonant.

⟨än⟩ is used inTibetan Pinyin for/ɛ̃/. It is alternately written⟨ain⟩.

⟨ån⟩ is used inWalloon, for the nasal vowel/ɔ̃/.

⟨aŋ⟩ is used inLakhota for the nasal vowel/ã/

⟨ao⟩ is used in many languages, such asPiedmontese andMandarinPinyin, to represent/au̯/. InIrish, it represents/iː/ (/eː/ inMunster) between broad consonants. InScottish Gaelic, it represents/ɯː/ between broad consonants. InFrench, it is found in a few words such aspaon representing/ɑ̃/ and aspaonne representing/a/. InMalagasy, it represents/o/. InWymysorys, it represents/œʏ̯/.

⟨ão⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐ̃ũ̯/.

⟨aq⟩ is used inTaa, for thepharyngealized vowel/aˤ/.

⟨au⟩ is used inEnglish for/ɔː/. It occasionally represents/aʊ/, as inflautist. Other pronunciations are/æ/ or/ɑː/ (depending on dialect) inaunt andlaugh,/eɪ/ ingauge,/oʊ/ ingauche andchauffeur, and/ə/ as inmeerschaum andrestaurant.

InGerman andDutch, it represents/au/ and/ʌu/, respectively (/au/ in some northern and/ɔu/ in some southern Dutch and some Flemish dialects).

InFrench, it represents/o/ or sometimes/ɔ/.

InIcelandic andNorwegian it represents/œy/ and/æʉ/, respectively.

In severalRomanizations of Wu Chinese, it represents/ɔ/.

In theCornishKernowek Standard, it is used for/ɔ(ː)/, as incaul "cabbage" ordauncya "to dance".^[1]

⟨äu⟩ is used inGerman for the diphthong/ɔɪ/ in declension of native words with⟨au⟩; elsewhere,/ɔɪ/ is written as⟨eu⟩. In words, mostly of Latin origin, where⟨ä⟩ and⟨u⟩ are separated by a syllable boundary, it represents/ɛ.ʊ/, e.g.Matthäus (a German form forMatthew).

⟨aw⟩ is used inEnglish in ways that parallel English⟨au⟩, though it appears more often at the end of a word.InCornish, it represents/aʊ/ or/æʊ/.^[1][2][3][4] InWelsh, it represents/au/.

⟨ay⟩ is used in English in ways that parallel⟨ai⟩, though it appears more often at the end of a word. In French, it represents/ɛj/ before a vowel (as inayant) and/ɛ.i/ before a consonant (as inpays). InCornish, it represents/aɪ/,/əɪ/,/ɛː/, or/eː/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨a_e⟩ (asplit digraph) is used in English for/eɪ/.

⟨bb⟩ is used inPinyin for/b/ in languages such asYi, where⟨b⟩ stands for/p/. It was used inPortuguese until 1947. It had the same sound as⟨b⟩. Was used only for etymological purposes. InHungarian, it representsgeminated/bː/. In English, doubling a letter indicates that the previous vowel is short (so⟨bb⟩ represents/b/). In ISO romanizedKorean, it is used for the fortis sound/p͈/, otherwise spelled⟨pp⟩; e.g.hobbang. InHadza it represents the ejective/pʼ/. In several African languages it is implosive/ɓ/. InCypriot Arabic it is/bʱ/.

⟨bd⟩ is used inEnglish for/d/ in a few words of Greek origin, such asbdellatomy. When not initial, it represents/bd/, as inabdicate.

⟨bf⟩ is used inBavarian and severalAfrican languages for the/b̪͡v/.

⟨bh⟩ is used in transcriptions ofIndo-Aryan languages for amurmuredvoiced bilabial plosive (/bʱ/), and for equivalent sounds in other languages. InJuǀʼhoan, it's used for the similarprevoiced aspirated plosive/b͡pʰ/. It is used inIrish to represent/w/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/vʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩), word-initially it marks thelenition of⟨b⟩, e.g.mo bhád/mˠəwaːd̪ˠ/ "my boat",bheadh/vʲɛx/ "would be". InScottish Gaelic, it represents/v/, or in a few contexts as/w/~/u/ between a broad vowel and a broad consonant or between two broad vowels, as inlabhair/l̪ˠau.ɪɾʲ/. In theorthography used in Guinea before 1985,⟨bh⟩ was used inPular (aFula language) for thevoiced bilabial implosive/ɓ/, whereas inXhosa,Zulu, andShona,⟨b⟩ represents the implosive and⟨bh⟩ represents the plosive/b/. In some orthographies ofDan,⟨b⟩ is/b/ and⟨bh⟩ is/ɓ/.

⟨bm⟩ is used inCornish for an optionallypre-occluded/m/; that is, it represents either/m/ or/mː/ (in any position);/ᵇm/ (before a consonant or finally); or/bm/ (before a vowel); examples aremabm ('mother') orhebma ('this').^[1][2][3][4]

⟨bp⟩ is used inSandawe and romanizedThai for/p/.⟨bp⟩ (capital⟨bP⟩) is used inIrish, as theeclipsis of⟨p⟩, to represent/bˠ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/bʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩).

⟨bv⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for thevoiced labiodental affricate/b̪͡v/.

⟨bz⟩ is used inShona for awhistled sibilant cluster/bz͎/.

⟨cc⟩ was formerly used in Spanish-based spelling systems forQuechua andAymara for the sound/q/, as inCcozcco (modernQusqu) ('Cuzco'). InItalian,⟨cc⟩ before afront vowel represents a geminated/tʃ/, as inlacci/ˈlat.tʃi/. InPiedmontese andLombard,⟨cc⟩ represents the/tʃ/ sound at the end of a word. InHadza it is the glottalized click/ᵑǀˀ/. In Englishcrip slang,⟨cc⟩ can sometimes replace the letters⟨ck⟩ or⟨ct⟩ at the ends of words, such as withthicc,protecc,succ andfucc.

⟨cg⟩ was used for[ddʒ] or[gg] in Old English (ecg in Old English sounded like 'edge' in Modern English, whilefrocga sounded like 'froga'), where both arelong consonants. It is used for the click/ǀχ/ inNaro, and in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless dental click/ǀ/.

⟨ch⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can represent/tʃ/,/k/,/ʃ/,/x/ or/h/. See article.

⟨çh⟩ is used inManx for/tʃ/, such as in the wordçhengey, meaning speech, as a distinction from⟨ch⟩ which is used for/x/.

⟨čh⟩ is used inRomani and theChechen Latin alphabet for/tʃʰ/. In theOssete Latin alphabet, it was used for/tʃʼ/.

⟨ci⟩ is used in theItalian for/tʃ/ before the non-front vowel letters⟨a, o, u⟩. InEnglish, it usually represents/ʃ/ whenever it precedes any vowel other than⟨i⟩. InPolish, it represents/t͡ɕ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and/t͡ɕi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of⟨ć⟩ appearing in other situations. In Romanian, it represents/tʃ/. The digraph is found at the end of a word (deci, atunci, copaci) or before the letters a, o, or u (ciorba, ciuleandra); the/tʃ/ sound made by the letter c in front of the letters e or i becomes/k/ in front of the three aforementioned vowels, making the addition of the letter i necessary.

⟨cj⟩ is used inFriulian for/c/ such as in wordscjocolate/cokoˈlate/. It's also used in local orthographies ofLombard to represent/tʃ/ derived from Latin⟨cl⟩.

⟨ck⟩ is used in manyGermanic languages in lieu of⟨kk⟩ or⟨cc⟩ to indicate either ageminated/kː/, or a/k/ with a preceding (historically)short vowel. The latter is the case with Englishtack,deck,pick,lock, andbuck (comparebacker withbaker). InGerman,⟨ck⟩ indicates that the preceding vowel is short. Prior to theGerman spelling reform of 1996, it was replaced by⟨k-k⟩ for syllabification. The new spelling rules allow only syllabification of the⟨ck⟩ as a whole:

• Old spelling:Säcke:Säk-ke ('sacks')
• New spelling:Säcke:Sä-cke

Among the modern Germanic languages,⟨ck⟩ is used mainly inAlsatian,English,German,Luxembourgish,Scots,Swedish, and otherWest Germanic languages inAustria,Germany andSwitzerland. Similarly,⟨kk⟩ is used for the same purpose inAfrikaans,Danish,Dutch,Icelandic,Norwegian, and other West Germanic languages in theNetherlands andBelgium. Compare the wordnickel, which is the same in many of these languages except for the customary⟨ck⟩ or⟨kk⟩ spelling. The word isnickel in English and Swedish,Nickel in German, andnikkel in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic and Norwegian.

It was also used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless dental click/ǀ/ (equivalent to⟨cg⟩).

It is also used inCornish for/k/ at the end of a syllable after a short vowel; only in loanwords (mostly from English) in theStandard Written Form (SWF),^[4] more widely inKernowek Standard.^[1]

⟨cn⟩ is used inEnglish for/n/ in a few words of Greek origin, such ascnidarian. When not initial, it represents/kn/, as inacne. It is used inScottish Gaelic for/kʰr/, and nasalises the following vowel, as incneap/kʰrʲɛ̃hb/.

⟨cö⟩ is used inSeri for alabializedvelar plosive,/kʷ/. It is placed between⟨c⟩ and⟨d⟩ inalphabetical order.

⟨cr⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for/ʈʂ/.

⟨cs⟩ is used in theHungarian for avoiceless postalveolar affricate,/tʃ/. It is considered a distinct letter, namedcsé, and is placed between⟨c⟩ and⟨d⟩ inalphabetical order. Examples of words with⟨cs⟩ includecsak ('only'),csésze ('cup'),cső ('pipe'),csípős ('peppery').

⟨ct⟩ is used inEnglish for/t/ in a few words of Greek origin, such asctenoid. When not initial, it represents/kt/, as inact. Is used inPortuguese for/t/ in some words, e.g.retrospecto but not intacto.

⟨cu⟩ is used in languages such asNahuatl (that is, based onSpanish orPortuguese orthography) for/kʷ/. In Nahuatl,⟨cu⟩ is used before a vowel, whereas⟨uc⟩ is used after a vowel.

⟨cw⟩ is used in modern scholarly editions of Old English for the sound/kw/, which was spelled⟨cƿ⟩,⟨cuu⟩ or⟨cu⟩ in manuscripts. In Middle English these were all replaced by Latin⟨qu⟩.

⟨cx⟩ is used inEsperanto asan unofficial surrogate of⟨ĉ⟩, which represents/tʃ/.

⟨cz⟩ is used inPolish for/ʈ͡ʂ/ as incześć^ⓘ ('hello'). InKashubian,⟨cz⟩ represents/tʃ/. InFrench andCatalan, historical⟨cz⟩ contracted to theligature⟨ç⟩, which represents/s/ when followed by⟨a, o, u⟩. InHungarian, it was formerly used for the sound/ts/, which is now written⟨c⟩. InEnglish,⟨cz⟩ is used to represent/tʃ/ in theloanwordsCzech, andCzechia.

⟨dc⟩ is used inNaro for the click/ᶢǀ/, and inJuǀʼhoan for theprevoiced ejective/d͡tʃʼ/.

⟨dd⟩ is used inEnglish to indicate a/d/ with a preceding (historically) short vowel (e.g.jaded/ˈdʒeɪdɨd/ has a "long a" whileladder/ˈlædər/ has a "short a"). InWelsh,⟨dd⟩ represents avoiced dental fricative/ð/. It is treated as a distinct letter, namedèdd, and placed between⟨D⟩ and⟨E⟩ inalphabetical order. In the ISO romanization ofKorean, it is used for the fortis sound/t͈/, otherwise spelled⟨tt⟩; examples areddeokbokki andbindaeddeok. InBasque, it represents avoiced palatal plosive/ɟ/, as inonddo "mushroom". In several African languages it is implosive/ɗ/.Latin delta (ẟ, lowercase only) is represented by "dd" inModern Welsh.

⟨dg⟩ is used inEnglish for/dʒ/ in certain contexts, such as withjudgement andhedge

⟨dh⟩ is used in theAlbanian,Swahili, and revivedCornish^[1][2][3][4] for thevoiced dental fricative/ð/. The first examples of this digraph are from theOaths of Strasbourg, the earliest French text, where it denotes the same sound/ð/ developed mainly from intervocalic Latin -t-.^[5]In early traditional Cornish⟨ȝ⟩ (yogh), and later⟨th⟩, were used for this purpose.Edward Lhuyd is credited for introducing the grapheme to Cornish orthography in 1707 in hisArchaeologia Britannica. InIrish it represents/ɣ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) or/j/ (beside⟨e, i⟩); at the beginning of a word it shows thelenition of⟨d⟩, e.g.mo dhoras/mˠəɣɔɾˠəsˠ/ "my door" (cf.doras/d̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "door"). InScottish Gaelic it represents/ɣ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) or/ʝ/ or/j/ (beside⟨e, i⟩).

In thepre-1985 orthography of Guinea,⟨dh⟩ was used for thevoiced alveolar implosive/ɗ/ inPular. It is currently written⟨ɗ⟩. In the orthography ofShona it is the opposite:⟨dh⟩ represents/d/, and⟨d⟩/ɗ/. In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages,⟨dh⟩ represents a dental stop,/t̪/.

In addition,⟨dh⟩ is used in various romanization systems. In transcriptions ofIndo-Aryan languages, for example, it represents themurmuredvoiced dental plosive/d̪ʱ/, and for equivalent sounds in other languages. InJuǀʼhoan, it's used for the similarprevoiced aspirated plosive/d͡tʰ/. In theromanization of Arabic, it denotes⟨ﺫ⟩, which represents/ð/ inModern Standard Arabic.

Represents/ɖ/ in Javanese and Somali.

⟨dj⟩ is used inFaroese,Portuguese,French and many French-based orthographies for/dʒ/. In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as/ṯ/ or/ḏ/; this sound is also written⟨dy⟩,⟨tj⟩,⟨ty⟩, or⟨c⟩. It is also formerly used in Indonesian as/d͡ʒ/.

⟨dl⟩ is used inHmong’sRomanized Popular Alphabet for/tˡ/. InNavajo, it represents/tɬ/, and inXhosa it represents/ɮ̈/. InHadza it is ejective/cʎʼ/.

⟨dł⟩ is used inTlingit for/tɬ/ (in Alaska,⟨dl⟩ is used instead).

⟨dm⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated andnasally released/t͡pn͡m/.

⟨dn⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fornasally released/tn/. InCornish, it is used for an optionallypre-occluded/n/; that is, it is pronounced either/n/ or/nː/ (in any position);/ᵈn/ (before a consonant or finally); or/dn/ (before a vowel); examples arepedn ('head') orpednow ('heads').^[1][2][3][4]

⟨dp⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated/t͡p/.

⟨dq⟩ is used for the click/ᶢǃ/ inNaro.

⟨dr⟩ is used inMalagasy for/ɖʐ/. See⟨tr⟩. It is used inFijian for 'ndr' nasalized (/ɳɖr/). In some Amerindian languages it represents/ʈʂ/ as in Gwichʼin and sporatically/ɖ/ everywhere as in Paiwan and Maba

⟨ds⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for theprevoiced ejective/d͡tsʼ/.

⟨dt⟩ is used inGerman,Swedish, andSandawe orthography as well as the romanization ofThai for/t/.⟨dt⟩ (capital⟨dT⟩) is used inIrish, as theeclipsis of⟨t⟩, to represent/d̪ˠ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/tʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩).

⟨dv⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for thevoiced dental affricate/d͡ð/.

⟨dx⟩ is used in someZapotecan languages for avoiced postalveolar fricative/ʒ/. (It is placed between⟨D⟩ and⟨E⟩ inalphabetical order.) InJuǀʼhoan it is used for theprevoiced uvularized plosive/d͡tᵡ/.

⟨dy⟩ is used inXhosa for/dʲʱ/. InShona, it represents/dʒɡ/. InTagalog it is used for/dʒ/. In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop such as/ṯ/ or/ḏ/. This sound is also written⟨tj⟩,⟨dj⟩,⟨ty⟩,⟨c⟩, or⟨j⟩.

⟨dz⟩ is used in several languages, often to represent/d͡z/. See article.

⟨dź⟩ is used in thePolish andSorbian alphabets for/d͡ʑ/, thevoiced alveolo-palatal affricate, as indźwięk/d͡ʑvʲɛŋk/.⟨dź⟩ is never written before avowel (⟨dzi⟩ is used instead, as indziecko/d͡ʑɛt͡skɔ/ 'child').

⟨dż⟩ is used in thePolish for avoiced retroflex affricate/ɖ͡ʐ/ (e.g.dżem^ⓘ 'jam').

⟨dž⟩ is used inSerbo-Croatian,Slovak,Lithuanian, andLatvian to represent/d͡ʒ/. See article.

⟨e′⟩ is used inTaa, where it represents theglottalised orcreaky vowel/ḛ/.

⟨ea⟩ is used in manylanguages. InEnglish,⟨ea⟩ usually represents the monophthong/iː/ as inmeat; due to asound change that happened in Middle English, it also often represents the vowel/ɛ/ as insweat. Rare pronunciations occur, like/eɪ/ inbreak,great,steak, andyea, and/ɔː/ in the archaicealdorman. When followed by⟨r⟩, it can represent the standard outcomes of the previously mentioned three vowels in this environment:/ɪər/ as inbeard,/ɜːr/ as inheard, and/ɛər/ as inbear, respectively; as another exception,/ɑr/ occurs in the wordshearken,heart, andhearth. It often represents two independent vowels, like/eɪ.ɑː/ (seance),/i.æ/ (reality),/i.eɪ/ (create), and/i.ɪ/ or/i.ə/ (lineage). Unstressed, it may represent/jə/ (ocean) and/ɪ/ or/ə/ (Eleanor). InRomanian, it represents the diphthong/e̯a/ as inbeată ('drunk female'). InIrish,⟨ea⟩ represents/a/ between a slender and a broad consonant. InScottish Gaelic,⟨ea⟩ represents/ʲa/,/ɛ/ or/e/ between a slender and a broad context, depending on context or dialect. InOld English, it represents the diphthong/æɑ̯/.⟨Ea⟩ is also the transliteration of the⟨ᛠ⟩ rune of theAnglo-Frisian Futhorc.

⟨eá⟩ is used inIrish for/aː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨eà⟩ is used inScottish Gaelic for/ʲaː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨éa⟩ is used inIrish for/eː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨èa⟩ is used inScottish Gaelic for/ia/ between a slender and a broad consonant, unless the broad consonant is m, mh, or p, in which case it represents/ɛ/.

⟨ee⟩ represents a long mid vowel in a number of languages. InEnglish,⟨ee⟩ represents/iː/ as inteen. InDutch andGerman,⟨ee⟩ represents/eː/ (though it is pronounced[eɪ] in majority of northern Dutch dialects). In theCantonese Romanisation, it represents/iː/ as in English, or/ei/ for characters which might be pronounced as/iː/ inother dialects. InBouyei,⟨ee⟩ is used for plain/e/, as⟨e⟩ stands for/ɯ/.

⟨eh⟩ is used inTaa for themurmured vowel/e̤/. In theWade-Giles transliteration ofMandarin Chinese, it is used for/ɛ/ after a consonant, as inyeh/jɛ/. InGerman,⟨eh⟩ represents/eː/, as inReh.

⟨ei⟩ This digraph was taken over fromMiddle High German, where it represented/eɪ/. It usually represents adiphthong. InModern German,⟨ei⟩ is predominant in representing/aɪ/, as inEinstein, while the equivalent digraph⟨ai⟩ appears in only a few words. InEnglish,⟨ei⟩ can represent many sounds, including/eɪ/, as invein,/i/ as inseize,/aɪ/ as inheist,/ɛ/ as inheifer,/æ/ as inenceinte, and/ɪ/ or/ə/ as inforfeit. See alsoI before e except after c. In southern and westernFaroese dialects, it represents the diphthong/aɪ/, while in northern and eastern dialects, it represents the diphthong/ɔɪ/. InPortuguese,⟨ei⟩ represents/ɐj/ inGreater Lisbon, so do⟨éi⟩ and⟨êi⟩, but/ej~e/ or/ɛj/ in Brazil, East Timor, Macau, rest of Portugal, and Portuguese-speaking African countries,

InWelsh,⟨ei⟩ represents/əi/. InIrish andScottish Gaelic, it represents/ɛ/ or/e/, or/ɪ/ when unstressed, before a slender consonant. InDutch andAfrikaans,⟨ei⟩ represents/ɛi/. InFrench,⟨ei⟩ represents/ɛ/, as inseiche.

InHepburn romanization of theJapanese language it is used to transcribe the sound/eː/.

⟨eî⟩ is used inFrench for/ɛː/, as inreître/ʁɛːtʁ/.

⟨éi⟩ is used inIrish for/eː/ between slender consonants.

⟨èi⟩ is used inScottish Gaelic for/ɛː/ or/eː/ between slender consonants.

⟨ej⟩ is used inSwedish in some short words, such asleja/leːja/ ornej/nɛj/.

⟨em⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐĩ̯~ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word and/ẽ/ before a consonant. In French orthography, it represents a/ɑ̃/ when it is followed by⟨b⟩ or⟨p⟩.

⟨ẽm⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ẽĩ/ at the end of a word.

⟨ém⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐĩ̯~ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word.

⟨êm⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐĩ̯~ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word and/ẽ/ before a consonant.

⟨en⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐĩ̯~ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word followed or not by an/s/ as inhífen orhifens; and for/ẽ/ before a consonant within a word. InFrench, it represents/ɑ̃/ or/ɛ̃/.

⟨én⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ɐĩ̯~ẽĩ̯/ before a consonant.

⟨ên⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ẽ/ before a consonant.

⟨eo⟩ is used inIrish for/oː/ (/ɔ/ in 4 words) between a slender and a broad consonant. In Scottish Gaelic it is used for/ʲɔ/ between a slender and a broad consonant. In theJyutping romanization ofCantonese, it represents/ɵ/, an allophone of/œː/, while in theCantonese Romanisation, it represents/œː/. In theRevised Romanization of Korean,⟨eo⟩ represents theopen-mid back unrounded vowel/ʌ/, and inPiedmontese it is/ɛu̯/. InEnglish⟨eo⟩ is a rare digraph without a single pronunciation, representing/ɛ/ infeoff,jeopardy,leopard and the given namesGeoffrey andLeonard,/iː/ inpeople,/oʊ/ inyeoman and/juː/ in the archaicfeodary, while in the originally Gaelic nameMacLeod it represents/aʊ/. However, usually it represents two vowels, like/iː.ə/ inleotard andgalleon,/iː.oʊ/ instereo and,/iː.ɒ/ ingeodesy, and, uniquely,/uː.iː/ ingeoduck.

⟨eò⟩ is used inScottish Gaelic for/jɔː/ word-initially, and/ɔː/ elsewhere.

⟨eq⟩ is used inTaa for thepharyngealized vowel/eˤ/.

⟨eu⟩ is found in manylanguages, most commonly for the diphthong/eu/. Additionally, inEnglish,⟨eu⟩ represents/juː/ as inneuter (/uː/ in yod-dropping accents); however, the⟨eu⟩ in "maneuver/manoeuvre" always represents/uː/ even in most non yod-dropping accents. InGerman, it represents/ɔʏ/ as inDeutsch; and inFrench,Dutch,Breton, andPiedmontese, it represents/ø/. InCornish, it represents either long/øː~œː/ and short/œ/ or long/eː/ and short/ɛ/.^[1][2][3][4] InScottish Gaelic it normally represents/ia/, as inbeul/pial̪ˠ/, except when preceding⟨m⟩ (e.g.leum/ʎeːm/) and usually⟨b, mh, bh⟩, or in certain high-register words such astreun/t̪ʰɾeːn/ where it represents/eː/, and in southern dialects it is/eː/ in most contexts. InYale romanization of Cantonese it represents/ɵ~œː/, while in theCantonese Romanisation, it represents/œː/. In romanization ofWu Chinese, it represents/ø/, depending on the lect. InSundanese andAcehnese, it represents/ɤ/ as inbeureum ('red'). In theRevised Romanization of Korean, it represents/ɯ/.

⟨eû⟩ is used inFrench for/ø/, as injeûne/ʒøn/.

⟨ew⟩ is used inEnglish for/juː/ as infew andflew. An exception is the pronunciation/oʊ/ insew, leading to theheteronymsewer,(/ˈsuːər/, 'drain') vssewer (/ˈsoʊər/, 'one who sews'). InCornish, it stands for/ɛʊ/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨êw⟩ is used in theKernowek Standard orthography ofCornish to refer to a sound that can be either/ɛʊ/ or/oʊ/. This distribution can also be written⟨ôw⟩.^[1]

⟨ey⟩ is used inEnglish for a variety of sounds, including/eɪ/ inthey,/iː/ inkey, and/aɪ/ ingeyser. InFaroese, it represents the diphthong/ɛɪ/. InCornish, it represents the diphthong/ɛɪ/ or/əɪ/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨e_e⟩ (asplit digraph) indicates an English'long e', historically/e:/ but now most commonly realised as/i:/.

⟨eⁿ⟩ is used for/ẽ/ inHokkienPe̍h-ōe-jī.

⟨ff⟩, which may be written as thetypographic ligature⟨ff⟩, is used inEnglish andCornish^[4] for the same sound as single⟨f⟩,/f/. The doubling is used to indicate that the preceding vowel is (historically) short, or foretymological reasons, inlatinisms. Very rarely,⟨ff⟩ may be found word-initially in English, such as in proper names (e.g.,Rose ffrench,Jasper Fforde). InWelsh,⟨ff⟩ represents/f/, while⟨f⟩ represents/v/. In Welsh,⟨ff⟩ is considered a distinct letter, and placed between⟨f⟩ and⟨g⟩ inalphabetical order. In medievalBreton, vowel nasalisation was represented by a following⟨ff⟩. This notation was reformed during the 18th century, though proper names retain the former convention, which leads to occasional mispronunciation.

⟨fh⟩ is used inIrish andScottish Gaelic for thelenition of⟨f⟩. This happens to be silent, so that⟨fh⟩ in Gaelic corresponds to no sound at all, e.g. the Irish phrasecá fhad/kaːˈad̪ˠ/ "how long", wherefhad is the lenited form offad/fˠad̪ˠ/ "long". However, in three Scottish Gaelic words,fhèin,fhuair, andfhathast, it is pronounced as/h/.

⟨fx⟩ is used inNambikwara for aglottalized/ɸʔ/.

⟨gʻ⟩ is used inUzbek to represent/ɣ/.

⟨gb⟩ is used in someAfrican languages for avoiced labial-velar plosive,/ɡ͡b/.

⟨gc⟩ is used in languages, such asXhosa andZulu, for the click/ᶢǀ/.⟨gc⟩ (capital⟨gC⟩) is used inIrish, as theeclipsis of⟨c⟩, to represent/g/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/ɟ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩).

⟨ge⟩ is used inFrench for/ʒ/ before⟨e, i⟩ as ingeôle/ʒol/.

⟨gg⟩ is used inEnglish for/ɡ/ before⟨y⟩,⟨i⟩ and⟨e⟩ (e.g.doggy). It is also used inPinyin for/ɡ/ in languages such asYi. InCentral Alaskan Yup'ik, it represents/x/. InGreenlandic, it represents/çː/. In the ISO romanization ofKorean, it is used for the fortis sound/k͈/, otherwise spelled⟨kk⟩ (e.g.ggakdugi). InHadza it is ejective/kxʼ/. InItalian,⟨gg⟩ before afront vowel represents a geminated/dʒ/, as inlegge/ˈled.dʒe/. InPiedmontese andLombard,⟨gg⟩ is an etymological spelling representing an/tʃ/ at the end of a word which is the unvoicing of an ancient/dʒ/.

⟨gh⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can be silent or represent/ɡ/ or/f/. See article.

⟨gi⟩ is used inVietnamese for/z/ in northern dialects and/j/ in the southern ones. InItalian, it represents/dʒ/ before the non-front vowel letters⟨a o u⟩. InRomansh it represents/dʑ/ before⟨a o u⟩ (written⟨g⟩ beforefront vowels).

⟨gj⟩ is used inAlbanian for thevoiced palatal plosive/ɟ/, though forGheg speakers it represents/dʒ/. In theArbëresh dialect, it represents thevoiced velar plosive/ɡʲ/. InNorwegian andSwedish⟨gj⟩ represents/j/ in words likegjorde ('did'). InFaroese, it represents/dʒ/. It is also used in theRomanization of Macedonian as a Latin equivalent ofCyrillic⟨Ѓ⟩. Also, it's used inFriulian to represent/ɟ/ (whilst/dʒ/ is one of the pronunciations of the letter ⟨z⟩). It can be found in some local orthographies ofLombard to represent/dʒ/ derived from Latin ⟨gl⟩. Before the letterĐ was introduced intoGaj's Latin alphabet in 1878, the digraph ⟨gj⟩ had been used instead; and it remained in use till the beginning of the 20th century.

⟨gk⟩ is used inSandawe and the romanization ofThai for/k/; inLimburgish it represents/ɡ/. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraphγκ for/g/, asγ is used for/ɣ/ ~/ʝ/.

⟨gl⟩ is used inItalian and some African languages for/ʎ/.

⟨gm⟩ is used inEnglish for/m/ in a few words of Greek origin, such asphlegm andparadigm. Between vowels, it simply represents/ɡm/, as inparadigmatic.

⟨gn⟩ is used inLatin, where it represented/ŋn/ in the classical period. Latinvelar-coronal sequences like this (and also⟨cl cr ct gd gl gr x⟩) underwent apalatal mutation to varying degrees in mostItalo-WesternRomance languages. For most languages that preserve the⟨gn⟩ spelling (such asItalian andFrench), it represents apalatal nasal/ɲ/ (or more precisely/ɲː/ in Italian), and is similarly used inRomanization schemes such asWugniu for/ȵ/. This was not the case inDalmatian and theEastern Romance languages where a different mutation changed the velar component to alabial consonant as well as the spelling to⟨mn⟩. In Portuguese,⟨gn⟩ represents/n/, as if there was no⟨g⟩, e.g.assignatura,signal,impregnado andplurissignificação. It is used inScottish Gaelic for/kr/, and nasalises the following vowel, as ingnè/krʲɛ̃ː/.

InEnglish,⟨gn⟩ represents/n/ initially (see/gn/ reduction) and finally (i.e.gnome, gnu, benign, sign). When it appears between two syllables, it represents/ɡn/ (e.g.signal). InNorwegian andSwedish,⟨gn⟩ represents/ŋn/ in monosyllabic words likeagn, and between two syllables,tegne. Initially, it represents/ɡn/, e.g. Swedishgnista/ˈɡnɪsta/.

⟨gñ⟩ was used in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific for/ŋ/. It is one of several variants of the digraph⟨ñg⟩, and is preserved in the name of the town ofSagñay,Philippines.

⟨go⟩ is used inPiedmontese for/ɡw/ (like the “gu” inGuatemala).

⟨gq⟩ is used in languages, such asXhosa andZulu, for the click/ᶢǃ/. In theTaa language, it represents/ɢ/.

⟨gr⟩ is used inXhosa for/ɣ̈/.

⟨gu⟩ is used inEnglish,Spanish,French,Portuguese andCatalan for/ɡ/ before front vowels⟨i e⟩ (⟨i e y⟩ in English and French) where a "soft g" pronunciation (English/dʒ/; Spanish/x/; French, Portuguese and Catalan/ʒ/) would otherwise occur. In English, it can also be used to represent/ɡw/. In theOssete Latin alphabet, it is used for/ɡʷ/.

⟨gü⟩ is used inSpanish,Portuguese andCatalan for/ɡw/ before front vowels⟨i e⟩ where the digraph⟨gu⟩ would otherwise represent/ɡ/.

⟨gv⟩ is used for/kʷ/ inStandard Zhuang and inBouyei. In theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the labialized fricative/ɣʷ/.

⟨gw⟩ is used in various languages for/ɡʷ/, and inDene Suline it represents/kʷ/.

⟨ǥw⟩, capital⟨Ǥw⟩ (or⟨G̱w⟩), is used inTlingit for/qʷ/ (in Alaska); in Canada, this sound is represented by⟨ghw⟩.

⟨gx⟩ is used in languages, such asXhosa andZulu, for the click/ᶢǁ/. InEsperanto, it isan unofficial surrogate of⟨ĝ⟩, which represents/dʒ/.

⟨gy⟩ is used inHungarian for avoiced palatal plosive/ɟ/. In Hungarian, the letter's name isgyé. It is considered a single letter, andacronyms keep the digraph intact. The letter appears frequently in Hungarian words, such as the word for "Hungarian" itself:magyar. In the old orthography ofBouyei, it was used for/tɕ/. It is also commonly used inBurmese romanization schemes to represent/dʒ/.

⟨gǃ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thevoiced alveolar click/ᶢǃ/.

⟨gǀ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thevoiced dental click/ᶢǀ/.

⟨gǁ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thevoiced lateral click/ᶢǁ/.

⟨gǂ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thevoiced palatal click/ᶢǂ/.

⟨hh⟩ is used inXhosa to write themurmured glottal fricative/ɦ̤/, though this is often written⟨h⟩. In theIraqw language,⟨hh⟩ is thevoiceless epiglottal fricative/ʜ/, and inChipewyan it is a velar/uvular/χ/. InEsperanto orthography, it isan official surrogate of⟨ĥ⟩, which represents/x/.

⟨hj⟩ is used in theItalian dialect of Albanian for/xʲ/. InFaroese, it represents either/tʃ/ or/j/, and in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian, it represents/j/. InIcelandic it is used to denote/ç/.

⟨hl⟩ is used for/ɬ/ or/l̥/ in various alphabets, such as theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong (/ɬ/) andIcelandic (/l̥/). See alsoreduction of Old English /hl/.

⟨hm⟩ is used in theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, where it represents the sound/m̥/.

⟨hn⟩ is used in theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, where it represents the sound/n̥/. It is also used inIcelandic to denote the same phoneme. See alsoreduction of Old English /hn/.

⟨hr⟩ is used for/ɣ/ inBouyei. InIcelandic it is used for/r̥/. See alsoreduction of Old English /hr/.

⟨hs⟩ is used in theWade-Giles transcription ofMandarin Chinese for the sound/ɕ/, equivalent toPinyin⟨x⟩.

⟨hu⟩ is used primarily in theClassical Nahuatl language, in which it represents the/w/ sound before a vowel; for example,Wikipedia in Nahuatl is writtenHuiquipedia. After a vowel,⟨uh⟩ is used. In theOssete Latin alphabet,⟨hu⟩ was used for/ʁʷ/, similar to Frenchroi. The sequence⟨hu⟩ is also found in Spanish words such ashuevo orhueso; however, in Spanish this is not a digraph but a simple sequence of silent⟨h⟩ and the vowel⟨u⟩.

⟨hv⟩ is usedFaroese andIcelandic for/kv/ (often/kf/), generally inwh-words, but also in other words, such as Faroesehvonn. In theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the supposed fricative/ɣ͜β/.

⟨hw⟩ is used in modern editions ofOld English for/hw/, originally spelled⟨huu⟩ or⟨hƿ⟩ (the latter with thewynn letter). In its descendants in modern English, it is now spelled⟨wh⟩ (see there for more details). It is used in some orthographies ofCornish for/ʍ/.^[3][4]

⟨hx⟩ is used inPinyin for/h/ in languages such asYi (⟨h⟩ alone represents the fricative/x/), and inNambikwara it is aglottalized/hʔ/. InEsperanto orthography, it isan unofficial surrogate of⟨ĥ⟩, which represents/x/.

⟨hy⟩ is used inHepburn romanization of theJapanese language to transcribe the sound/ç/, which is the syllablehi before ay-vowel, such ashya,hyu, andhyo, which appear in Chinese loanwords. Was also used in Portuguese until 1947. It appeared in words like: Hydroginástica and Hypóthese.

⟨i′⟩ is used inTaa to represent theglottalized orcreaky vowel/ḭ/.

⟨ia⟩ is used inIrish andScottish Gaelic for the diphthong/iə/.

⟨ie⟩ is used inEnglish, where it usually represents the/aɪ/ sound as inpries andallied or the/iː/ sound as inpriest andrallied. Followed by an⟨r⟩, these vowels follow the standard changes to/aɪə/ and/ɪə/, as inbrier andbier. Unique pronunciations are/ɪ/ insieve,/ɛ/ infriend, and/eɪ/ inlingerie. Unstressed it can represent/jə/, as inspaniel andconscience, or/ɪ/ or/ə/ as inmischief andhurriedly. It also can represent many vowel combinations, including/aɪə/ indiet andclient,/aɪɛ/ indiester andquiescent,/iːə/ inalien andskier,/iːɛ/ inoriental andhygienic, and/iː.iː/ in Britishmedieval.

InDutch andAfrikaans,⟨ie⟩ represents thetense vowel/i/. InGerman, it may represent the lengthened vowel/iː/ as inLiebe (love) as well as the vowel combination/iə/ as inBelgien (Belgium). InLatvian andLithuanian,⟨ie⟩ is considered two letters for all purposes and represents/iæ̯/, commonly (although less precisely) transcribed as/i̯e/. InMaltese,⟨ie⟩ is a distinct letter and represents a longclose front unrounded vowel,/iː/ or/iɛ/. InPinyin it is used to write the vowel/e/ in languages such asYi, where⟨e⟩ stands for/ɛ/. InOld English⟨ie⟩ was one of the common diphthongs, theumlauted version of⟨ea⟩ and⟨eo⟩. Its value is not entirely clear, and in Middle English it had become/e/.

⟨îe⟩ is used inAfrikaans for/əːə/.

⟨ig⟩ is used inCatalan for/t͡ʃ/ (ch as in cheese) in thecoda.

⟨ih⟩, is used inTaa to represent the breathy ormurmured vowel/i̤/. It is also used inTongyong Pinyin andWade-Giles transcription for the fricative vowels of Mandarin Chinese, which are spelled⟨i⟩ inHanyu Pinyin.

⟨ii⟩ is used in many languages such as Portuguese (e.g. Aniilar, Sacerdócii) and Finnish (e.g. Riikka, Niinistö, Siitala, Riikkeli), Italian (e.g. Riina), Estonian (e.g. Riik), Scots (e.g. Auld Nii, Iisay), with phonemic long vowels for/iː/.

⟨ií⟩ is used inPortuguese for/iji/. In Portuguese, when forming the superlative absolute synthetic form of adjectives that end in "-io," they often end up with "ii" in the spelling. This happens because the "-íssimo(a)" suffix is added directly to the adjective (e.g. feio(a) -> feiíssimo(a), sério(a) -> seriíssimo(a)).

⟨ij⟩ is used inDutch for/ɛi/. See article.

⟨il⟩ is used inFrench for/j/, historically/ʎ/, as inail/aj/ (approximatelyeye inEnglish) "garlic". Can also be written as⟨ille⟩ as invieille/vjɛj/.

⟨im⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ĩ/.

⟨ím⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ĩ/ before a consonant.

⟨ĩm⟩ is used inPortuguese for the diphthong/ĩə/.

⟨in⟩ is used in many languages to write anasal vowel. InPortuguese before a consonant, and in manyWest African languages, it is/ĩ/, while in French it is/ɛ̃/.

⟨ín⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ĩ/ before a consonant.

⟨în⟩ is used inFrench to write a vowel sound/ɛ̃/ that was once followed by a historical⟨s⟩, as invous vîntes/vuvɛ̃t/ "you came".

⟨iŋ⟩ is used inLakhota for the nasal vowel/ĩ/.

⟨io⟩ is used inIrish for/ɪ/,/ʊ/, and/iː/ between a slender and a broad consonant. InScottish Gaelic it is used for/i/ and sometimes/(j)ũ(ː)/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨ío⟩ is used inIrish for/iː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨ìo⟩ is used inScottish Gaelic for/iː/ and/iə/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iq⟩ is used inTaa to represent thepharyngealized vowel/iˤ/.

⟨iu⟩ is used inIrish for/ʊ/ between a slender and a broad consonant. In Scottish Gaelic, it is used for/(j)u/ between a slender and a broad consonant. In Mandarinpinyin, it is/i̯ou̯/ after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled⟨you⟩).

⟨iú⟩ is used inIrish for/uː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iù⟩ is used inScottish Gaelic for/(j)uː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iw⟩ is used inWelsh andCornish for the diphthong/iʊ/ or/ɪʊ/.^[2][3][4]

⟨ix⟩ is used inCatalan for/ʃ/ (Eastern Catalan) or/jʃ/ (Western Catalan) after a vowel.

⟨i_e⟩ (asplit digraph) indicates an English'long i', historically/iː/ but now most commonly realised as/aɪ/.

⟨jh⟩ is used inWalloon to write a consonant that is variously/h/,/ʒ/ or/ç/, depending on the dialect. InTongyong pinyin, it represents/tʂ/, written⟨zh⟩ in standard pinyin.⟨jh⟩ is also the standard transliteration for theDevanāgarī letterझ/dʒʱ/.InEsperanto, it isan official surrogate of⟨ĵ⟩, which represents/ʒ/. InLatin American Spanish, it is sometimes used in first names (likeJhon and Jhordan) to represent/ɟʝ/ and distinguish it from the typical sound of⟨j⟩ in Spanish,/x/.

⟨jj⟩ is used inPinyin for/dʑ/ in languages such asYi. In romanizedKorean, it represents the fortis sound/tɕ͈/. InHadza it is ejective/tʃʼ/.

⟨jö⟩ is used as a letter of theSeri alphabet, where it represents alabializedvelar fricative,/xʷ/. It is placed betweenJ andL inalphabetical order.

⟨jr⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for/ɖʐ/.

⟨jx⟩ is used inEsperanto asan unofficial surrogate of⟨ĵ⟩, which represents/ʒ/.

⟨kg⟩ is used for/kχ/ in southern African languages such asSetswana andSotho. For instance, theKalahari is spelledKgalagadi/kχalaχadi/ in Setswana.

⟨kh⟩, in transcriptions ofIndo-Aryan andDravidian languages, represents theaspiratedvoiceless velar plosive (/kʰ/). For most other languages,^{[better source needed]} it represents thevoiceless velar fricative/x/, for example in transcriptions of the letterḫāʾ (خ) in standard Arabic, standard Persian, and Urdu, CyrillicХ,х (kha), Spanish⟨j⟩, as well as the Hebrew letterkaf (כ‎) in instances when it islenited. When used for transcription of the letterḥet (ח‎) inSephardic Hebrew, it represents thevoiceless pharyngeal fricative/ħ/. In CanadianTlingit it represents/qʰ/, which in Alaska is writtenk. In theOssete Latin alphabet, it was used for/kʼ/.

⟨kj⟩ is usedSwedish andNorwegian for/ɕ/ or/ç/. See also⟨tj⟩. InFaroese, it represents/tʃ/. In theromanization of Macedonian, it represents/c/.

⟨kk⟩ is used in romanizedKorean for thefortis sound/k͈/, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective/kʼ/, and inCypriot Arabic for/kʰː/.

⟨kl⟩ is used inZulu to write a sound variously realized as/kʟ̥ʼ/ or/kxʼ/.

⟨km⟩ is used inYélî Dnyedoubly articulated andnasally released/k͡pŋ͡m/.

⟨kn⟩ is used in English to write the word-initial sound/n/ (formerly pronounced /kn/) in some words of Germanic origin, such asknee andknife. It is used inYélî Dnye fornasally released/kŋ/.

⟨kp⟩ is used as a letter in someAfrican languages, where it represents avoiceless labial-velar plosive/k͡p/.

⟨kr⟩ is used inXhosa for/kxʼ/.

⟨ks⟩ is used inCornish for either/ks/ or/ɡz/.^[3][4]

⟨ku⟩ is used inPurépecha for/kʷ/. It also had that value in theOssete Latin alphabet.

⟨kv⟩ is used for/k^wh/ in some dialects ofZhuang.

⟨kw⟩ is used in various languages for thelabialized velar consonant/kʷ/, and inDene Suline (Chipewyan) for/k^wh/. Used informally in English forphonemic spelling ofqu, as inkwik (fromquick), ultimately fromProto-Indo-European*/ɡʷ/.

⟨ḵw⟩ is used in AlaskanTlingit for/q^wh/, which in Canada is written⟨khw⟩.

⟨kx⟩ in used inNambikwara for aglottalized/kʔ/, and inJuǀʼhoan for theejective/kxʼ/.

⟨ky⟩ is used inTibetan Pinyin for/tʃʰ/. It is commonly used inBurmese romanization schemes to represent/tʃ/ (⟨ch⟩ is already used to represent aspirated/tʃʰ/).

⟨lh⟩, inOccitan,Gallo, andPortuguese, represents apalatal lateral approximant/ʎ/. In manyIndigenous languages of the Americas it represents avoiceless alveolar lateral fricative/ɬ/. In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages it represents a dental lateral,/l̪/. In theGwoyeu Romatzyh romanization ofMandarin Chinese, initial⟨lh⟩ indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in/l/, which is otherwise spelled⟨l⟩. InMiddle Welsh it was sometimes used to represent the sound/ɬ/ as well as⟨ll⟩, inmodern Welsh it has been replaced by⟨ll⟩. InTibetan, it represents thevoiceless alveolar lateral approximant/ɬ/, as inLhasa.

⟨lj⟩ is a letter in someSlavic languages, such as the Latin orthographies ofSerbo-Croatian, where it represents apalatal lateral approximant/ʎ/. For example, the wordljiljan is pronounced/ʎiʎan/.Ljudevit Gaj first used the digraph⟨lj⟩ in 1830; he devised it by analogy with aCyrillic digraph, which developed into theligature⟨љ⟩. InSwedish, it represents/j/ in initial position e.g.ljus.

The sound/ʎ/ is written⟨gl⟩ in Italian, in Castilian Spanish and Catalan as⟨ll⟩, in Portuguese as⟨lh⟩, in some Hungarian dialects as⟨lly⟩, and inLatvian as⟨ļ⟩. InCzech andSlovak, it is often transcribed as⟨ľ⟩; it is used more frequently in the latter language. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01C7 (LJ), U+01C8 (Lj) and U+01C9 (lj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Љљ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

⟨ll⟩ and⟨l·l⟩ are used in several languages. See article.

⟨ḷḷ⟩ is used inAsturian for a sound that was historically/ʎ/ but which is now an affricate,[t͡s],[t͡ʃ],[d͡ʒ].

⟨lr⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for/ɭ /.

⟨lv⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated/l͜β/.

⟨lw⟩ is used for/lʷ/ inArrernte.

⟨lx⟩ in used inNambikwara for aglottalized/ˀl/.

⟨ly⟩ is used inHungarian. See article.

⟨mb⟩, in manyAfricanlanguages, represents/mb/ or/ᵐb/. In English, it represents/m/ when final, as inlamb (seereduction of /mb/). InStandard Zhuang and inBouyei,⟨mb⟩ is used for/ɓ/.⟨mb⟩ (capital⟨mB⟩) is used word initially inIrish, as theeclipsis of⟨b⟩, to represent/mˠ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/mʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩); e.g.ár mbád/aːɾˠmˠaːd̪ˠ/ "our boat" (cf./bˠaːd̪ˠ/ "boat"),i mBaile Átha Cliath "in Dublin".

⟨md⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated andprenasalized/n͡mt͡p/.

⟨mf⟩, in manyAfricanlanguages, represents/mf/ or/ᵐf/.

⟨mg⟩ is used inPinyin for/ŋɡ/ in languages such asYi, where the more common digraph⟨ng⟩ is restricted to/ŋ/. It is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated andprenasalized/ŋ͡mk͡p/.

⟨mh⟩ is used inIrish, as thelenition of⟨m⟩, to represent/w/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/vʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩), e.g.mo mháthair/mˠəˈwaːhəɾʲ/ "my mother" (cf.máthair/ˈmˠaːhəɾʲ/ 'mother'). InScottish Gaelic, it represents/v/, or in a few contexts as/w/~/u/ between a broad vowel and a broad consonant or between two broad vowels, as inreamhar/rˠɛ̃ũ.əɾ/.. InWelsh it stands for thenasal mutation of⟨p⟩ and represents thevoiceless/m̥/; for examplefy mhen/vəm̥ɛn/ 'my head' (cf.pen/pɛn/ 'head'). In both languages it is considered a sequence of the two letters⟨m⟩ and⟨h⟩ for purposes of alphabetization. InShona,Juǀʼhoan and several other languages, it is used for amurmured/m̤/. In theGwoyeu Romatzyh romanization ofMandarin Chinese, initial⟨mh⟩- indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in/m/, which is otherwise spelled⟨m⟩-. In several languages, such asGogo, it's a voiceless/m̥/.

⟨ml⟩ is used in theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, where it represents the sound/mˡ/.

⟨mm⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized/ˀm/. It is used inCornish for an optionallypre-occluded/m/; that is, it is pronounced either/m/ or/mː/ (in any position);/ᵇm/ (before a consonant or finally); or/bm/ (before a vowel); examples aremamm ('mother') orhemma ('this').^[2][3][4]

⟨mn⟩ is used in English to write the word-initial sound/n/ in a few words of Greek origin, such asmnemonic. When final, it represents/m/, as indamn or/im/ as inhymn, and between vowels it represents/m/ as indamning, or/mn/ as indamnation (see/mn/-reduction). InFrench it represents/n/, as inautomne andcondamner.

⟨mp⟩, in manyAfricanlanguages, represents/mp/ or/ᵐp/. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraphμπ for/b/, asβ is used for/v/. InMpumpong ofCameroon,⟨mp⟩ is a plain/p/.

⟨mq⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for apharyngealized or perhapscreaky/m̰/.

⟨mt⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated andprenasalized/n̪͡mt̪͡p/.

⟨mv⟩, in manyAfricanlanguages, represents/mv/ or/ᵐv/.

⟨mw⟩ is used for/mʷ/ inArrernte.

⟨mx⟩ is used inNambikwara for aglottalized/ˀm/.

⟨nʼ⟩ is used inXhosa andShona for/ŋ/. Since⟨ʼ⟩ is not a letter in either language,⟨nʼ⟩ is not technically a digraph.

⟨nb⟩ is used inPinyin for/mb/ in languages such asYi. It is also used inFula in Guinea for/ᵐb/ (written as⟨mb⟩ in other countries).

⟨nc⟩ is used in various alphabets. In theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, it represents the sound/ɲɟ/. InTharaka it is/ntʃ/. InXhosa andZulu it represents the click/ᵑǀ/.

⟨nd⟩ (capital⟨Nd⟩) is used in manyAfricanlanguages to represent/nd/ or/ⁿd/. InStandard Zhuang andBouyei, itrepresents/ɗ/.⟨nd⟩ (capital⟨nD⟩) is used word initially inIrish, as theeclipsis of⟨d⟩, to represent/n̪ˠ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/n̠ʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩), e.g.ár ndoras/aːɾˠˈn̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "our door" (cf.doras/ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "door"),i nDoire "inDerry".

⟨nf⟩, equivalent to⟨mf⟩ for/mf/ or/ᵐf/. InRangi⟨nf⟩ is/ᵐf/ while⟨mf⟩ is/m.f/.

⟨ng⟩, inSino-Tibetan languages,^[6] as inEnglish and several other European and derived orthographies (for exampleVietnamese),^[7] generally represents thevelar nasal/ŋ/.^[8][9] It is considered a single letter in manyAustronesian languages (Māori,Tagalog,Tongan,Gilbertese,Tuvaluan,Indonesian,Chamorro),^[10]Welsh, andRheinische Dokumenta, forvelar nasal/ŋ/; and in someAfrican languages (Lingala,Bambara,Wolof) forprenasalized/ɡ/ (/ⁿɡ/).^[11][12]

For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, seeNG-coalescence andG-dropping.

Finnish uses⟨ng⟩ to represent the phonemically longvelar nasal/ŋː/ in contrast to⟨nk⟩/ŋk/, which is its "strong" form underconsonant gradation, a type oflenition. Weakening/k/ produces anarchiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding/ŋ/, producing/ŋː/. (No/ɡ/ is involved at any point, despite the spelling⟨ng⟩). The digraph⟨ng⟩ is not an independent letter, but it is an exception to thephonemic principle, one of the few in standard Finnish.

⟨ng⟩ (capital⟨nG⟩) is used word-initially inIrish, as theeclipsis of⟨g⟩, to represent/ŋ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) or/ɲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩), e.g.ár ngalar/aːɾˠˈŋalˠəɾˠ/ "our illness" (cf./ˈɡalˠəɾˠ/),i nGaillimh "in Galway".

In Tagalog and otherPhilippine languages,⟨ng⟩ represented the prenasalized sequence/ŋɡ/ during the Spanish era. The velar nasal,/ŋ/, was written in a variety of ways, namely "n͠g", "ñg", "gñ" (as inSagñay), and—after a vowel—at times "g̃". During the standardization of Tagalog in the early part of the 20th century,⟨ng⟩ became used for the velar nasal/ŋ/, while prenasalized/ŋɡ/ came to be written⟨ngg⟩. Furthermore,⟨ng⟩ is also used for a commongenitive particle pronounced/naŋ/, to differentiate it from an adverbial particlenang.

InUzbek, it is considered as a separate letter, being the last (twenty-ninth) letter of theUzbek alphabet. It is followed by theapostrophe (tutuq belgisi).

⟨ńg⟩ is used inCentral Alaskan Yup'ik to write the voiceless nasal sound/ŋ̊/.

⟨ñg⟩, or more precisely⟨n͠g⟩, was a digraph in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific, such asTagalog^[13] andChamorro,^[14] where it represented the sound/ŋ/, as opposed to⟨ng⟩, which originally represented/ŋɡ/. An example is Chamorroagan͠gñáijon (modernagangñaihon) "to declare". Besides⟨ñg⟩, variants of⟨n͠g⟩ include⟨gñ⟩ (as inSagñay),⟨ng̃⟩, and a⟨g̃⟩, that is preceded by a vowel (but not a consonant). It has since been replaced by the trigraph⟨ngg⟩ or⟨ng⟩ (see above).

⟨ngʼ⟩ is used for/ŋ/ in Swahili and languages with Swahili-based orthographies. Since⟨ʼ⟩ is not a letter in Swahili,⟨ngʼ⟩ is technically a digraph, not atrigraph.

⟨nh⟩ is used in several languages. See article.

⟨ni⟩ inPolish, it usually representsɲ whenever it precedes a vowel, andɲi whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant ofń appearing in other situations. (In some cases it may represent alsoɲj before a vowel; for a better description, when, seethe relevant section in the article on Polish orthography).

⟨nj⟩ is a letter in the Latin orthographies ofAlbanian,Slovenian andSerbo-Croatian.Ljudevit Gaj, a Croat, first used this digraph in 1830. In all of these languages, it represents thepalatal nasal/ɲ/. For example, the Croatian and Serbian wordkonj "horse" is pronounced/koɲ/. The digraph was created in the 19th century by analogy with a digraph ofCyrillic, which developed into theligature⟨њ⟩. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01CA (NJ), U+01CB (Nj) and U+01CC (nj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Њњ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

InFaroese, it generally represents/ɲ/, although in some words it represent/nj/, like inbanjo. It is also used in some languages ofAfrica andOceania where it represents aprenazalizedvoiced postalveolar affricate orfricative,/ⁿdʒ/ or/ⁿʒ/. InMalagasy, it represents/ⁿdz/.

Other letters and digraphs of theLatin alphabet used for spelling this sound are⟨ń⟩ (inPolish),⟨ň⟩ (inCzech andSlovakian),⟨ñ⟩ (inSpanish),⟨nh⟩ (inPortuguese andOccitan),⟨gn⟩ (inItalian andFrench), and⟨ny⟩ (inHungarian, among others).

⟨nk⟩ is used in manyBantu languages likeLingala,Tshiluba, andKikongo, for/ŋk/ or/ᵑk/.^[15] In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara, it distinguishes a prenasalized velar stop,/ŋ͡k~ŋ͡ɡ/, from the nasal/ŋ/.

⟨nm⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated/n͡m/.

⟨ńm⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated/n̪͡m/.

⟨nn⟩ is used inIrish to represent thefortis nasals/n̪ˠ/ (beside⟨a, o, u⟩) and/n̠ʲ/ (beside⟨e, i⟩). It is used inScottish Gaelic to represent/n̪ˠ/ beside⟨a, o, u⟩ and/ɲ/ beside⟨e, i⟩. InSpanish historical⟨nn⟩ has contracted to theligature⟨ñ⟩ and represents the sound/ɲ/. In theGwoyeu Romatzyh romanization ofMandarin Chinese, final-nn indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in/n/, which is otherwise spelled-n. It is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized/ˀn/. InPiedmontese, it is/ŋn/ in the middle of a word, and/n/ at the end. InCornish, it is used for an optionallypre-occluded/n/; that is, it is pronounced either/n/ or/nː/ (in any position);/ᵈn/ (before a consonant or finally); or/dn/ (before a vowel); examples arepenn ('head') orpennow ('heads').^[2][3][4]

⟨np⟩ is used in theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, where it represents the sound/mb/.

⟨nq⟩ is used in various alphabets. In theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, it represents the sound/ɴɢ/. InXhosa andZulu it represents the click/ᵑǃ/. In theGwoyeu Romatzyh romanization ofMandarin Chinese, final-nq indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in/ŋ/, which is otherwise spelled-ng.

⟨nr⟩ is used in theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, where it represents the sound/ɳɖ/. In theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is/ɳ /.

⟨ns⟩, in manyAfricanlanguages, represents/ns/ or/ⁿs/.

⟨nt⟩ is a letter present in manyAfricanlanguages where it represents/nt/ or/ⁿt/. Modern Greek uses the equivalent digraphντ for/d/, asδ is used for/ð/.

⟨nv⟩, equivalent to⟨mv⟩ for/mv/ or/ᵐv/.

⟨nw⟩ is used inIgbo for/ŋʷ/, and inArrernte for/nʷ/.

⟨nx⟩ is used for the click/ᵑǁ/ inXhosa andZulu, and inNambikwara for aglottalized/ˀn/.

⟨ny⟩ is used in several languages for/ɲ/. See article.

⟨nz⟩, in manyAfricanlanguages, represents/nz/ ~/ⁿz/,/ndz/ ~/ⁿdz/,/nʒ/ ~/ⁿʒ/, or/ndʒ/ ~/ⁿdʒ/.

⟨nǃ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thealveolar nasal click/ᵑǃ/.

⟨nǀ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thedental nasal click/ᵑǀ/.

⟨nǁ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thelateral nasal click/ᵑǁ/.

⟨nǂ⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for thepalatal nasal click/ᵑǂ/.

⟨n-⟩ is used for medial/ŋ/ inPiedmontese.

⟨o′⟩ is used for/o/ and/ø/ inUzbek, with the preferred typographical form being⟨oʻ⟩ (Cyrillic⟨ў⟩). Technically it is not a digraph in Uzbek, since⟨ʻ⟩ is not a letter of the Uzbek alphabet, but rather a typographic convention for a diacritic. In handwriting the letter is written as⟨õ⟩.

It is also used inTaa, for theglottalized orcreaky vowel/o̰/.

⟨oa⟩ is used inEnglish, where it commonly represents the/oʊ/ sound as inroad,coal,boast,coaxing, etc. InMiddle English, where the digraph originated, it represented/ɔː/, a pronunciation retained in the wordbroad and derivatives, and when the digraph is followed by an "r", as insoar andbezoar. The letters also represent two vowels, as inkoala/oʊ.ɑː/,boas/oʊ.ə/,coaxial/oʊ.æ/,oasis/oʊ.eɪ/, anddoable/uː.ə/. InMalagasy, it is occasionally used for/o/.

⟨oe⟩ is found in manylanguages. InEnglish, it represents the/oʊ/ sound as inhoe and sometimes the/uː/ sound as inshoe. It may also represent the/ɛ/ sound inAmE pronunciation ofOedipus,(o)esophagus (also inBrE), and(o)estrogen,/eɪ/ inboehmite (AmE) and surnames likeBoehner andGroening (as if spelledBayner andGray/Greyning respectively), and/iː/ infoetus (BrE andCoE) and some speakers' pronunciation ofOedipus andoestrogen.⟨oe⟩ represents/u/ inAfrikaans andDutch, e.g.doen; it also represented the same phoneme in theIndonesian language before the1972 spelling reform.Ligatured to⟨œ⟩ inFrench, it stands for the vowels/œ/ (as inœil/œj/) and/e/ (as inœsophage/ezɔfaʒ~øzɔfaʒ/). It is an alternative way to write⟨ö⟩ or⟨ø⟩ in German or Scandinavian languages when this character is unavailable. In romanization ofWu Chinese and inRoyal Thai General System of Transcription, it represents/ɤ/.In theILE romanization ofCantonese it represents the vowel/ɵ~œː/, while in theJyutping romanisation of Cantonese it represents/œː/, and inZhuang it is used for/o/ (⟨o⟩ is used for/oː/). InPiedmontese, it is/wɛ/. In theKernewek Kemmyn orthography ofCornish, it is used for a phoneme which is[oː] long,[oˑ] mid-length, and[ɤ] short.^[16]

⟨oê⟩ is used inFrench to write the vowel sound/wa/ in a few words before what had historically been an⟨s⟩, mostly in words derived frompoêle/pwal/ "stove". The diacriticless variant,⟨oe⟩, rarely represents this sound except in words related tomoelle/mwal/ (rarely speltmoëlle).

⟨ôe⟩ is used inAfrikaans for the vowel/ɔː/.

⟨õe⟩ is used inPortuguese for/õĩ̯/. It is used in plural forms of some words ended in⟨ão⟩, such asanão–anões andcampeão–campeões.

⟨oh⟩ is used inTaa, for the breathy ormurmured vowel/o̤/.

⟨oi⟩ is used in variouslanguages. InEnglish, it represents the/ɔɪ̯/ sound as incoin andjoin. InFrench, it represents/wa/, which was historically – and still is in some cases – written⟨oy⟩. InIrish it is used for/ɛ/,/ɔ/,/ɪ/,/əi̯/,/iː/,/oː/ between a broad and a slender consonant. InScottish Gaelic it is used for/ɔ/,/ɤ/, except before⟨ll, m, nn⟩ word-finally or pre-consonant, where it is/əi/. InPiedmontese, it is/ui̯/.

⟨oí⟩ is used inIrish for/iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨oî⟩ is used inFrench to write/wa/ before what had historically been an⟨s⟩, as inboîtier orcloître.

⟨ói⟩ is used inIrish for/oː/ between a broad and a slender consonant. It is also used inPortuguese.

⟨òi⟩ is used inPiedmontese for/oi̯/. It is used inScottish Gaelic for/oː/ or/ɔː/

⟨om⟩ is used inPortuguese for/õ/, and in French to write/ɔ̃/.

⟨ôm⟩ is used inBrazilian Portuguese for/õ/ before a consonant.

⟨on⟩ is used inPortuguese for/õ/ before a consonant, and in French to write/ɔ̃/.

⟨ôn⟩ is used inPortuguese for/õ/ before a consonant.

⟨ön⟩ is used inTibetan Pinyin for/ø̃/. It is alternately writtenoin.

⟨oo⟩ is used in manylanguages. InEnglish, it generally represents sounds which historically descend from theMiddle English pronunciation/oː/. After theGreat Vowel Shift, this came to typically represent/uː/ as in "moon" and "food". Subsequently, in a handful of common words like "good" and "flood" the vowel was shortened to⟨/u/⟩, and after theMiddle EnglishFOOT–STRUT split, these became/ʊ/ and/ʌ/ respectively. Like inMiddle English, the digraph's pronunciation is/oː/ in most other languages. InGerman andDutch, the digraph represents/oː/. InCornish, it represents either/oː/ or/uː/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨oq⟩ Is used inTaa, for thepharyngealized vowel/oˤ/.

⟨or⟩, inDaighi tongiong pingim, representsmid central vowel/ə/ orclose-mid back rounded vowel/o/ inTaiwanese Hokkien.^[17][18]

⟨ou⟩ is used inEnglish for thediphthong/aʊ/, as inout/aʊt/. This spelling is generally used before consonants, with⟨ow⟩ being used instead before vowels and at the ends of words. Occasionally⟨ou⟩ may also represent other vowels –/ʌ/ as introuble,/oʊ/ as insoul,/ʊ/ as inwould,/uː/ as ingroup, or/juː/ as in the alternate American pronunciation ofcoupon. The⟨ou⟩ inout originally represented/uː/, as in French, and its pronunciation has mostly changed as part of theGreat Vowel Shift. However, the/uː/ sound was kept before⟨p⟩.

InDutch⟨ou⟩ represents/ʌu/ in the Netherlands or/oʊ/ in Flanders. InCornish, it represents[uː],[u], or[ʊ].^[1][2][3][4] InFrench, it represents thevowel/u/, as invous/vu/ "you", or theapproximant consonant/w/, as inoui/wi/ "yes".

InPortuguese this digraph stands for theclose-mid back rounded vowel/o/ or for the fallingdiphthong/ou/, according to dialect.

⟨ou⟩ is used InHepburn romanization of theJapanese language to transcribe the sound/oː/.

⟨oû⟩ is used inFrench to write the vowel sound/u/ before what had historically been an⟨s⟩, as insoûl/su/ "drunk" (also speltsoul).

⟨ow⟩, inEnglish, usually represents the/aʊ/ sound as incoward,sundowner, andnow or the/oʊ/ sound, as infroward,landowner, andknow. An exceptional pronunciation is/ɒ/ inknowledge androwlock. There are many Englishheteronyms distinguished only by the pronunciation of this digraph, like:bow (front of ship or weapon),bower (a dwelling or string player),lower (to frown or drop),mow (to grimace or cut),row (a dispute or line-up),shower (rain or presenter),sow (a pig or to seed),tower (a building or towboat). InCornish, this represents the diphthong/ɔʊ/^[4] or/oʊ/;^[1][2][3] before vowels, it can also represent/uː/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨ôw⟩ is used in theKernowek Standard orthography ofCornish to refer to a sound that can be either/ɛʊ/ or/oʊ/. This distribution can also be written⟨êw⟩.^[1]

⟨oy⟩ is found in manylanguages. InEnglish andFaroese,⟨oy⟩ represents the diphthong/ɔɪ/. Examples in English includetoy andannoy. InCornish, it represents the diphthong/oɪ/^[1][2][3]~/ɔɪ/^[4]; in the wordsoy ('egg') andmoy ('much'), it can also be pronounced/uɪ/^[1][2][3]~/ʊɪ/^[4].

⟨oŷ⟩ is an obsolete digraph once used inFrench.

⟨øy⟩ is used inNorwegian for/øʏ/.

⟨o_e⟩ (asplit digraph) indicates an English'long o', historically/ɔ:/ but now most commonly realised as/oʊ/.

⟨pf⟩ is used inGerman for/pf/, e.g.Pferd "horse",Apfel "apple", andKnopf "button". In English, usually in recent loan words from German, it generally represents/f/, such as inPfizer.

⟨ph⟩ in used in English and French for/f/, mostly in words derived fromGreek, but also some words derived fromVietnamese. InIrish,Scottish Gaelic andWelsh it represents thelenition/Aspirate mutation of⟨p⟩. It represents/f/ inVietnamese, where⟨f⟩ is not used.

⟨pl⟩ is used in theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, for/pˡ/.

⟨pm⟩ is used for/ᵖm/ inArrernte.

⟨pn⟩ is used in English for/n/ initially in words of Greek origin such aspneumatic.

⟨pp⟩ is used in romanizedKorean for the fortis sound/p͈/, and inCypriot Arabic for/pʰː/. It was used inPortuguese until 1947, e.g.guardanappo,appa andmappelido.

⟨ps⟩ is used in English and Portuguese for/s/ initially in words of Greek origin such aspsyche (English) andPsychòtico (Portuguese). InShona it represents awhistled sibilant cluster/ps͎/.

⟨pt⟩ is used in several languages for/t/ in words of Greek origin, where it was/pt/, e.g. in Englishpterosaur/ˈtɛrəsɔːr/.

⟨pw⟩ is used in Arrernte for/pʷ/.

⟨py⟩ is used inCypriot Arabic for/pc/.

⟨qg⟩ is used inNaro for the click/ǃχ/. It was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless alveolar click/ǃ/.

⟨qh⟩ is used in various alphabets. InQuechua and theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, it represents/qʰ/. InXhosa, it represents the click/ǃʰ/.

⟨qk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless alveolar click/ǃ/ (equivalent to⟨qg⟩).

⟨qq⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective/qʼ/. InHadza it represents the glottalized click/ᵑǃˀ/.

⟨qu⟩ is used inAragonese,Asturian,Catalan,French,Galician,Mirandese,Occitan,Portuguese andSpanish for/k/ before⟨e, i⟩, where⟨c⟩ represents/θ/ (Castilian Spanish,Asturian,Aragonese and most ofGalicia) or/s/ (Catalan,French,American Spanish,Occitan andPortuguese). In French,⟨qu⟩ is also usually/k/ before⟨a, o⟩. This dates toLatin⟨qu⟩, and ultimately theProto-Indo-Europeanlabialized velar consonant*/kʷ/; in English this sound instead became written primarily as⟨wh⟩, due toGrimm's law changingkʷ >xʷ (written⟨hw⟩), and Middle English spelling change switching⟨hw⟩ to⟨wh⟩. In English, it represents/k/ in words derived from those languages (e.g.,quiche), and/kw/ in other words, including borrowings from Latin (e.g.,quantity). InGerman, it represents/kv/. In theOssetian Latin alphabet, it was used for/qʷ/. InVietnamese it is used to represent/kw/ or/w/. In Cornish, it represents/kw/.^[19]

⟨qü⟩ is used inPortuguese andFrench for/kw/ before⟨e, i⟩.

⟨qv⟩ is used inBouyei for/ˀw/.

⟨qw⟩ is used in some languages for/qʷ/. InMi'kmaq it represents/xʷ/. In theKernowek Standard andStandard Written Form orthographies for Revived Cornish, it represents/kw/.^[1][2][4]

⟨qy⟩ is used inBouyei for glottalized/ˀj/.

⟨rd⟩ is used in thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara for a retroflex stop,/ʈ/. InNorwegian andSwedish it representsvoiced retroflex plosive,[ɖ]. InScottish Gaelic it sometimes represents/rˠʃt̪/ when broad, or/rˠʃtʲ/ when slender, though this epenthetic consonant is not found in all dialects.

⟨rh⟩ is used inEnglish forGreek wordstransliterated throughLatin. Examples include "rhapsody", "rhetoric" and "rhythm". These were pronounced in Ancient Greek with avoiceless "r" sound,/r̥/, as inOld English⟨hr⟩. The digraph may also be found within words, but always at the start of a word component, e.g., "polyrhythmic".German,French, andInterlingua use⟨rh⟩ in the same way.⟨Rh⟩ is also found inWelsh where it represents avoiceless alveolar trill (r̥), that is a voiceless "r" sound. It can be found anywhere; the most common occurrence in English from Welsh is in the slightly respelled given name "Rhonda". InWade-Giles transliteration,⟨rh⟩ is used for the syllable-final rhotic ofMandarin Chinese. In theGwoyeu Romatzyh romanization ofMandarin Chinese, initial⟨rh⟩- indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in/ʐ/, which is otherwise spelled⟨r⟩-. InPurépecha, it is aretroflex flap,/ɽ/.

⟨rl⟩ is used in thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara, as well inNorwegian andSwedish, for a retroflex lateral, written/ɭ/ in theIPA. InGreenlandic, it represents/ɬː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

⟨rm⟩ is used inInuktitut for/ɴm/.

⟨rn⟩ represents the retroflex nasal/ɳ/ inWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara (seetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages), as well inNorwegian andSwedish. InGreenlandic, it represents/ɴ/. InInuktitut, it represents/ɴn/.

⟨rp⟩ is used inGreenlandic for/pː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

⟨rr⟩ is used inEnglish for⟨r⟩. It normally appears in words ofLatin orRomance origin, and⟨rrh⟩ in words of ancientGreek origin. It is quite a common digraph. Some words with⟨rr⟩ are relatively recentloanwords from other languages; examples includeburro fromSpanish. It is often used in impromptu pronunciation guides to denote either analveolar tap or analveolar trill. It is a letter in theAlbanian alphabet.

In several European languages, such asCatalan,Spanish,Portuguese, Basque orAlbanian, "rr" represents thealveolar trill/r/ (or thevoiced uvular fricative/ʁ/ inPortuguese) and contrasts with the single "r", which represents thealveolar tap/ɾ/ (in Catalan and Spanish a single "r" also represents the alveolar trill at the beginning of words or syllables). In Italian and Finnish, "rr" is ageminated (long) consonant/rː/. InCentral Alaskan Yup'ik it is used for/χ/. InCornish, it can represent either/rː/,/ɾʰ/, or/ɹ/.^[4] InScottish Gaelic, it represents/rˠ/.

⟨rs⟩ was equivalent to⟨rz⟩ and stood for/r̝/ (modernř) in medievalCzech. InGreenlandic, it represents/sː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component. InNorwegian andSwedish, it represents thevoiceless retroflex fricative,[ʂ].

⟨rt⟩ is used in Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara, as well inNorwegian andSwedish, for a retroflex stop/ʈ/. InScottish Gaelic it often represents/rˠʃt̪/ when broad, or/rˠʃtʲ/ when slender, though this epenthetic consonant is not found in all dialects.

⟨rw⟩ is used for/ɻʷ/ inArrernte.

⟨rz⟩ is used inPolish andKashubian for avoiced retroflex fricative/ʐ/, similar to English⟨zh⟩ as inZhivago. Examples from Polish aremarzec/ˈma.ʐɛt͡s/^ⓘ "March" andrzeka/ˈʐɛ.ka/^ⓘ "river".⟨rz⟩ represents the same sound as⟨ż⟩, but they have a different origin.⟨rz⟩ used to be pronounced the same way as Czech⟨ř⟩ (/r̝/) in older Polish, but the soundsmerged, and theorthography still follows etymology. When preceded by avoiceless consonant (⟨ch, k, p, t⟩) orend of a word,⟨rz⟩devoices to[ʂ], as inprzed/ˈpʂɛt/^ⓘ "before".

⟨sc⟩ is used inItalian for/ʃː/ before the front vowel letters⟨e, i⟩. It is used for/s/ in Catalan, Spanish, French, English, Occitan and Brazilian Portuguese (e.g. French/Englishreminiscence, Spanishreminiscencia, Brazilian Portuguesereminiscência, Catalanreminiscència, Occitanreminiscéncia); in European Portuguese this changed to/ʃ/ in the early 20th century, although in careful speech it can be/ʃs/. However, it represents/z/ in modern pronunciations ofcrescent inBritish and non-CanadianCommonwealth English. InOld English it usually represented/ʃ/.

⟨sç⟩ is used inFrench for/s/ in a few verb forms such as simple pastacquiesça/akjɛsa/. It is also used inPortuguese as in the imperative/conjunctive form of verbs ending with⟨scer⟩:crescercresça. Still pronounced/s/ inBrazilian Portuguese, inEuropean Portuguese this changed to/ʃ/ in the early 20th century, although in careful speech it can be/ʃs/.

⟨sg⟩ is used inPiedmontese andCorsican for/ʒ/.

⟨sh⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it represents/ʃ/. Seeseparate article. See also⟨ſh⟩below, which has the capitalized forms SH and ŞH.

⟨si⟩ is used in English for/ʒ/ in words such asfusion (seeyod-coalescence). InPolish, it represents/ɕ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and/ɕi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or at the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of⟨ś⟩ appearing in other situations. InWelsh⟨si⟩ is used for the sound/ʃ/ as insiocled/ʃɔklɛd/ ('chocolate').

⟨sj⟩ is usedSwedish to write thesje sound/ɧ/ (see also⟨sk⟩) and inFaroese,Danish,Norwegian andDutch to writeVoiceless postalveolar fricative/ʃ/.

⟨sk⟩ is used inSwedish to write thesje sound/ɧ/. It takes by rule this sound value before the front vowels (⟨e, i, y, ä, ö⟩) word or root initially (as insked (spoon)), while normally representing/sk/ in other positions. In Norwegian and Faroese, it is used to writevoiceless postalveolar fricative/ʃ/ (only in front of⟨i, y, ei, øy/oy⟩).

⟨sl⟩ is used inIraqw andBouyei to write thelateral fricative/ɬ/. (⟨sl⟩ is used in the French tradition to transcribe/ɬ/ in other languages as well, as in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages.)

⟨sp⟩ is used inGerman for/ʃp/ as inSpaß/ʃpaːs/ instead of using⟨schp⟩.

⟨sr⟩ is used inKosraean for/ʂ/. In northern dialects ofScottish Gaelic it represents/s̪t̪ɾ/, as insràid/s̪t̪ɾaːtʲ/.

⟨ss⟩ is used inPinyin for/z/ in languages such asYi. For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, seeWade–Giles → Syllabic consonants. In English,⟨ss⟩ typically represents/z/ in the first⟨ss⟩ ofpossess and its derivativespossessed,possesses,possession,possessive andpossessor,brassiere,dessert,dissolution and its derivativesdissolved,dissolves anddissolving,Missoula (County),Missouri(an),scissors, and pronunciations ofAussie outside the United States; otherwise, it represents/s/. In other languages, such asCatalan,Cornish,^[4]French,German,Italian,Occitan,Portuguese andCentral Alaskan Yup'ik, where⟨s⟩ transcribes/z/ between vowels (and elsewhere in the case of Yup'ik),⟨ss⟩ is used for/s/ in that position (/sː/ in Italian and also in some cases in Cornish^[4]); English sometimes also follows this convention. In romanizedKorean, it represents the fortis sound/s͈/. InCypriot Arabic it is used for/sʰː/.

Also to note, there are spellings of words with⟨ss⟩ as opposed to them with just one⟨s⟩, varied in different types of English. For the wordfocus, in British English the 3rd person singular, the past participle and the present participle are spelled with⟨ss⟩ (i.e.focusses,focussed andfocussing) whereas in American English and usually Canadian and Australian English they are spelled with one⟨s⟩ (i.e.focuses,focused andfocusing).

⟨st⟩ is used inGerman for/ʃt/ as inStadt/ʃtat/ instead of using⟨scht⟩ (or⟨cht⟩). In some parts of northern Germany, the pronunciation/st/ (as in English) is still quite common in the local dialect.

⟨sv⟩ is used inShona to write thewhistled sibilant/s͎/. This was written⟨ȿ⟩ from 1931 to 1955.

⟨sx⟩ is used inNambikwara for aglottalized/sʔ/, and inEsperanto orthography it isan unofficial surrogate of⟨ŝ⟩, that represents/ʃ/.

⟨sy⟩ represents/ʃ/ inMalay andTagalog.

⟨sz⟩ is used in several languages. See article.

⟨s-c⟩ and⟨s-cc⟩ are used inPiedmontese for the sequence/stʃ/.

⟨s-g⟩ and⟨s-gg⟩ are used inPiedmontese for the sequence/zdʒ/.

⟨tc⟩ is used for the palatal click/ǂ/ inNaro, and to write the affricate/tʃ/ inSandawe,Hadza andJuǀʼhoan.

⟨tf⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for thevoiceless dental affricate/t͡θ/

⟨tg⟩ is used for/tχ/ inNaro. InCatalan, it represents/d͡ʒ/.InRomansh orthographies it represents theAlveolo-palatal consonant/tɕ/.

⟨th⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can represent/ð/,/θ/ or/t/. See article. See also:Pronunciation of English th.

⟨ti⟩, before a vowel, is usually pronounced/sj/ in French and/tsj/ in German and is commonly/ʃ/ in English, especially in the suffix-tion.

⟨tj⟩ is used inNorwegian andFaroese words liketjære/tjøra ('tar') for/ç/ (Norwegian) and/tʃ/ (Faroese). In the closely relatedSwedish alphabet, it represents/ɕ/, as intjära/ˈɕæːɾa/. It is also the standard written form of the/tʃ/ sound inDutch and was likewise used in Dutch-based orthographies that used to apply for languages in Indonesia and Surinam. In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri,Arrernte, andPitjantjatjara, it represents apostalveolar stop,transcribed in theInternational Phonetic Alphabet as/ṯ/ or/ḏ/ depending on voicing. This sound is also written⟨dj⟩,⟨ty⟩,⟨dy⟩,⟨c⟩, or⟨j⟩. In Catalan it represents/d͡ʒ/. InJuǀʼhoan it is used for theejective affricate/tʃʼ/.

⟨tk⟩ is used inJuǀʼhoan for the uvularizedejective/tᵡʼ/.

⟨tl⟩ is used in various orthographies for thevoiceless alveolar lateral affricate/tɬ/. In Catalan it represents/lː/, although it may be simplify to/l/ in some dialects.

⟨tł⟩ is used in the transcription ofAthabascan languages for a lateral affricate/tɬ/ or/tɬʰ/.

⟨tm⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated andnasally released/t̪͡pn̪͡m/. In Catalan, it is used to represent/mː/, that can result not geminated as well,/m/, as insetmana (pronounced/səˈmːanə/ in standard Catalan and/seˈmana/ inValencian).

⟨tn⟩ is used for a prestopped nasal/ᵗn/ inArrernte, and for the similar/t̪n̪/ inYélî Dnye. In Catalan it represents/nː/, although it may be simplify to/n/ in some dialects.

⟨tp⟩ is used inYélî Dnye fordoubly articulated/t̪͡p/.

⟨tr⟩ generally represents a sound like aretroflex version of English "ch" in areas of German influence, such asTruk lagoon, now spelled⟨chuuk⟩. For instance, inMalagasy it represents/tʂ/. In southerndialects ofVietnamese,⟨tr⟩ represents avoiceless retroflex affricate/tʂ/. In the northern dialects, this sound is pronounced/tɕ/, just like what⟨ch⟩ represents.⟨tr⟩ was formerly considered a distinct letter of theVietnamese alphabet, but today is not.

⟨ts⟩ is used in theBasque, where it represents anapicalvoiceless alveolar affricate/t̺s̺/. It contrasts with⟨tz⟩, which islaminal/t̻s̻/. It is mainly used to Latinize the letterTse (Cyrillic) (ц) InHausa,⟨ts⟩ represents an alveolar ejective fricative/sʼ/ or affricate/tsʼ/), depending on dialect. It is considered a distinct letter, and placed between⟨t⟩ and⟨u⟩ inalphabetical order. It is also used inCatalan for/t͡s/. It is also used inHausa Boko. In central-westernAsturian it's used for/t͡s/.

TheWade-Giles andYale romanizations ofChinese use⟨ts⟩ for anunaspiratedvoiceless alveolar affricate/ts/. Wade–Giles also uses⟨ts'⟩ for the aspirated equivalent/tsʰ/. These are equivalent toPinyin⟨z⟩ and⟨c⟩, respectively. TheHepburn romanization ofJapanese uses⟨ts⟩ for avoiceless alveolar affricate/ts/). In native Japanese words, this sound only occurs before⟨u⟩, but it may occur before other vowels inloanwords. Other romanization systems write/tsu/ as⟨tu⟩.⟨Ts⟩ inTagalog is used for/tʃ/. The sequence⟨ts⟩ occurs in English, but it has no special function and simply represents a sequence of⟨t⟩ and⟨s⟩. It occurs word-initially only in someloanwords, such astsunami andtsar. Most English-speakers do not pronounce a/t/ in such words and pronounce them as if they were spelled⟨sunami⟩ and⟨sar⟩ or⟨zar⟩, respectively.

⟨ts̃⟩ was used in medieval^{[citation needed]}Basque and inAzkue's Basque dictionary^[20] for avoiceless postalveolar affricate/t͡ʃ/; this is now represented by⟨tx⟩.

⟨tt⟩ is used inBasque for/c/, and in romanizedKabyle for/ts/. In romanizedKorean, it represents the fortis sound/t͈/, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is ejective/tʼ/, and inCypriot Arabic, it represents/tʰː/.

⟨tw⟩ is used for/tʷ/ inArrernte.

⟨tx⟩ is used inBasque,Catalan and some indigenous languages ofSouth America, for avoiceless postalveolar affricate/t͡ʃ/. InNambikwara it represents aglottalized/tʔ/. InJuǀʼhoan it is used for theuvularized-release/tᵡ/.

⟨ty⟩ is used in theHungarian alphabet for/cç/, avoiceless palatal affricate; in Hungarian, digraphs are considered single letters, andacronyms keep them intact. In Xhosa,⟨ty⟩ represents/tʲʼ/ and the similar/tʲʼ/ in the AlgonquianMassachusett orthography. InShona, it represents/tʃk/. In Tagalog it represents/tʃ/. In thetranscription of Australian Aboriginal languages such asWarlpiri, andArrernte, it represents a postalveolar stop, either voiceless/ṯ/ or voiced/ḏ/. (This sound is also written⟨tj⟩,⟨dj⟩,⟨dy⟩,⟨c⟩, and⟨j⟩). InCypriot Arabic, it represents/c/.

⟨tz⟩ is used inBasque,German andNahuatl for thevoiceless alveolar affricate/t͡s/). In Basque, this sound islaminal and contrasts with theapical affricate represented by⟨ts⟩. It is also used in Catalan to represent thevoiced alveolar affricate/d͡z/. InJuǀʼhoan it is used for theejective affricate/tsʼ/.For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, seeWade–Giles → Syllabic consonants.

⟨u′⟩ is used inTaa for theglottalized orcreaky vowel/ṵ/.

⟨ua⟩ is used in Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and theRomanized Popular Alphabet used to writeHmong, to represent the diphthong/uə/.

⟨uc⟩ is used inNahuatl for/kʷ/ before a consonant. Before a vowel,⟨cu⟩ is used.

⟨ue⟩ is found in many languages. InEnglish, it represents/juː/ or/uː/ as incue ortrue, respectively. InGerman, it is/ʏ/ or/yː/ (equivalent to⟨ü⟩), appearing mainly in proper nouns. InCantonese Romanisation, it represents/yː/ in a non-initial position.

⟨ûe⟩ is used inAfrikaans to represent/œː/.

⟨ug⟩ is used inCentral Alaskan Yup'ik for/ɣʷ/.

⟨uh⟩ is used in Taa for the breathy ormurmured vowel/ṳ/. InNahuatl, it is used for/w/ before a consonant. Before a vowel,⟨hu⟩ is used.

⟨ui⟩ is used inDutch for the diphthong/œy/. InIrish, it is/ɪ/ after a broad (velarized) consonant. InScottish Gaelic it normally represents/u/, however before⟨m, n, ng, s⟩ or before⟨ll, m, nn⟩ preceding a vowel, it represents/ɯ/, and before⟨dh⟩ or before⟨ll, m, nn⟩ word-finally or pre-consonant, it represents/ɯi/. InGerman, it represents the diphthong/ʊɪ̯/, which appears only ininterjections such as 'pfui!'. In Mandarinpinyin, it is used for/wei̯/ after a consonant (spelt⟨wei⟩ in the initial position). InCantonese Romanisation, it represents/uːy/ or/ɵy/. InScots it represents/ø/, e.g.bluid "blood",duin "done",muin "moon" andspuin "spoon". InEnglish, when used as a digraph, it represents/uː/ infruit,juice,suit andpursuit. However, after⟨g⟩, the⟨u⟩ functions as a modifier (marking⟨g⟩ as/ɡ/ rather than/dʒ/), e.g.guild,guilty,sanguine,Guinea,guide etc.), it is also used for other sounds, in cases of unusual etymological spelling, e.g.circuit,biscuit,build.

⟨ũi⟩ is used in Portuguese for/ũː/

⟨uĩ⟩ is used in Portuguese for/wĩː/

⟨uí⟩ is used inIrish for/iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨úi⟩ is used in Irish for/uː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨ùi⟩ is used in Scottish Gaelic for/uː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨um⟩ is used inPortuguese for/ũ/, and inFrench to write/œ̃/ (only before a consonant and at the end of a word).

⟨úm⟩ is used in Portuguese for/ũ/ before a consonant.

⟨un⟩ is used in many languages for anasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in manyWest African languages, it is/ũ/, while in French it is/œ̃/, or among the younger generation/ɛ̃/. Inpinyin,/u̯ən/ is spelled⟨un⟩ after a consonant,⟨wen⟩ initially.

⟨ún⟩ is used in Portuguese for/ũ/ before a consonant.

⟨ün⟩ is used inTibetan Pinyin for/ỹ/.

⟨uŋ⟩ is used inLakhota for the nasal vowel/ũ/.

⟨uo⟩ is used inPinyin for/o/ in languages such asYi, where⟨o⟩ stands for/ɔ/.

⟨uq⟩ is used inTaa, for thepharyngealized vowel/uˤ/.

⟨ur⟩ is used inCentral Alaskan Yup'ik for/ʁʷ/, and inPinyin to write thetrilled vowel/ʙ̝/ in languages such asYi.^{[citation needed]}

⟨uu⟩ is used in many languages with phonemic long vowels, for/uː/. InDutch, it is used for/y/.

⟨uw⟩ is used in Dutch for/yu̯/, e.g.uw "yours",duwen "to push". InCornish it is used for/iʊ/^[1][2][3][4] or/yʊ/.^[4]

⟨uy⟩ is used inAfrikaans for/œy/.

⟨ux⟩ isunofficially used inEsperanto, instead of⟨ŭ⟩, for/u̯/.

⟨u_e⟩ (asplit digraph) is used in English for/juː/ or/uː/.

⟨vb⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for thelabiodental flap/ⱱ/.

⟨vg⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless palatal click/ǂ/.

⟨vh⟩ represents/v̤/ inShona. It was also used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for theaspiratedpalatal click/ǂʰ/.

⟨vk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless palatal click/ǂ/ (equivalent to⟨vg⟩).

⟨vn⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thepalatal nasal click/ᵑǂ/.

⟨vv⟩ is used inCentral Alaskan Yup'ik for/f/.

⟨vr⟩ is used inQuechua.

⟨wh⟩ is used inEnglish to representProto-Germanic/hw/, the continuation of thePIElabiovelar*/kʷ/ (which became⟨qu⟩ inLatin and theRomance languages). Most English question words begin with this digraph, hence the termswh-word andwh-question. In Old English,/hw/ was spelled⟨huu⟩ or⟨hƿ⟩, and only the former was retained during theMiddle English period, becoming⟨hw⟩ during the gradual development of the letter⟨w⟩ during the 14th-17th centuries. In most dialects it is now pronounced/w/, but a distinct pronunciation realized as avoiceless w sound, [ʍ], is retained in some areas:Scotland, central and southernIreland, southeasternUnited States, and (mostly among older speakers) inNew Zealand. In a few words (who,whose, etc.) the pronunciation used among almost all speakers regardless of geography is/h/. For details, seePronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩.
InMāori,⟨wh⟩ represents/ɸ/ or more commonly/f/, with some regional variations approaching/h/ or/hw/. In theTaranaki region, for some speakers, this represents a glottalized/wʼ/. InXhosa, it represents/w̤/, a murmured variant of/w/ found in loan words. InCornish, it represents/ʍ/.^[1][2][4]

⟨wr⟩ is used inEnglish for words which formerly began/wr/, nowreduced to /r/ in virtually all dialects.

⟨wu⟩ is used in Mandarinpinyin to write the vowel/u/ in initial position, as in the nameWuhan. It is sometimes found with this value in Romanized Korean as well, as inhanwu. InCantonese Romanisation, it is used to represent/wuː/ in an initial position or/uː/ in a non-initial position.

⟨ww⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized/ˀw/.

⟨wx⟩ is used inNambikwara for aglottalized/ˀw/.

⟨xc⟩ is used in thePortuguese for/s/ before the front vowel letters⟨e, i⟩.

⟨xf⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labialized fricative/xʷ/.

⟨xg⟩ is used to write the click/ǁχ/ inNaro. It was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless lateral click/ǁ/.

⟨xh⟩ is used inAlbanian to write thevoiced postalveolar affricate/dʒ/, as in the surnameHoxha/ˈhɔdʒa/. InZulu andXhosa it represents thevoiceless aspiratedalveolar lateral click/kǁʰ/, e.g.Xhosa/ˈkǁʰoːsa/. InWalloon it represents a consonant that is variously/h/,/ʃ/,/ç~x/, depending on the dialect. In CanadianTlingit it represents/χ/, which is represented by⟨x̱⟩ in Alaska.

⟨xi⟩ is used in English for/kʃ/ in words such asflexion. (It is equivalent to⟨c⟩ plus the digraph⟨ti⟩, as inaction.)

⟨xk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography ofKhoekhoe for thevoiceless lateral click/ǁ/ (equivalent to⟨xg⟩).

⟨xö⟩ is used as a letter of theSeri alphabet, where it represents alabializeduvular fricative,/χʷ/. It is placed between⟨x⟩ and⟨y⟩ inalphabetical order.

⟨xs⟩ is used inPortuguese in the wordexsudar/ˌe.su.ˈda(ʁ)/ inBrazilian Portuguese. InEuropean Portuguese this digraph changed to/ʃs/ in the early 20th century and the word came to be pronounced as/ɐjʃ.su.ˈðaɾ/

⟨xu⟩ was used in theOssete Latin alphabet for/χʷ/.

⟨xw⟩ is used in theKurdish and theTlingit language for/xʷ/.

⟨x̱w⟩ is used in AlaskanTlingit for/χʷ/, which in Canada is written⟨xhw⟩.

⟨xx⟩ is used inHadza for the glottalized click/ᵑǁˀ/, and inCypriot Arabic for/χː/.

⟨xy⟩ is used in theHmongRomanized Popular Alphabet to write/ç/.

⟨ye⟩ used in various languages. In English it represents/aɪ/ word finally, e.g.bye ordye.

⟨yh⟩ was used in thepre-1985 orthography of Guinea, for the "ejective y" orpalatalizedglottal stop (/ʔʲ/) inPular (aFula language) and inHausa to represent acreaky voicedpalatal approximant[j̰]. In the current orthography it is now written⟨ƴ⟩. InXhosa it represents/j̤/. In a handful of Australian languages, it represents a "dental semivowel".^{[clarification needed]}

⟨yi⟩ is used in Mandarinpinyin to write/i/ when it forms an entire syllable.

⟨yk⟩ is used inYanyuwa for a pre-velar stop,/ɡ̟~k̟/.

⟨ym⟩ is used inFrench to write/ɛ̃/ (/im/ before another vowel), as inthym/tɛ̃/ "thyme".

⟨yn⟩ is used inFrench to write/ɛ̃/ in some words of Greek origin, such assyncope/sɛ̃kɔp/ "syncope".

⟨yr⟩ is used inPinyin to write thetrilled vowel/r̝/ in languages such asYi.

⟨yu⟩ is used in romanized Chinese to write the vowel/y/. In Mandarinpinyin it is used for/y/ in initial position, whereas in CantoneseJyutping it is used for/yː/ in non-initial position. In theYale romanization of Cantonese andCantonese Romanisation, it represents/jyː/ in an initial position and/yː/ in a non-initial position.

⟨yw⟩ is used for/jʷ/ inArrernte and fordoubly articulated/ɥ/ inYélî Dnye. It is used inCornish for the diphthongs/iʊ/,^[1][2][3]/ɪʊ/, or/ɛʊ/.^[4]

⟨yx⟩ in used inNambikwara for aglottalized/ˀj/.

⟨yy⟩ is used in some languages such asFinnish to write the long vowel/yː/. In Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is represents glottalized/ˀj/. Used in someAsturian dialects to represent/ɟ͡ʝ/.

⟨y_e⟩ (asplit digraph) indicates an English'long y' (equivalent to⟨i...e⟩).

⟨zh⟩ represents thevoiced postalveolar fricative (/ʒ/), like the⟨s⟩ inpleasure, inAlbanian and inNative American orthographies such asNavajo. It is used for the same sound in some English-language dictionaries, as well as to transliterate the sound when represented byCyrillic⟨ж⟩ andPersian⟨ژ⟩ into English, but is rarely seen in English words, appearing primarily in foreign borrowings (e.g.muzhik) and slang (e.g.zhoosh).⟨zh⟩ as a digraph is rare in European languages using theLatin alphabet; in addition to Albanian it is found inBreton in words that are pronounced with/z/ in some dialects and/h/ in others. InHanyu Pinyin,⟨zh⟩ represents thevoiceless retroflex affricate/tʂ/. WhenMalayalam andTamil are transliterated into the Latin script,⟨zh⟩ represents aretroflex approximant (Malayalamഴ and Tamilழ⟨ḻ⟩[ɻ]).

⟨zi⟩ inPolish represents/ʑ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and/ʑi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of⟨ź⟩ appearing in other situations.

⟨zl⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for thevoiced lateral fricative/ɮ/

⟨zr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for/ʐ/.

⟨zs⟩ is the last (forty-fourth) letter of theHungarian alphabet. Its name iszsé[ʒeː] and represents/ʒ/, avoiced postalveolar fricative, similar to⟨j⟩ inJacques and beside⟨s⟩ invision. A few examples arerózsa "rose" andzsír "fat".

⟨zv⟩ is used inShona to write thewhistled sibilant/z͎/. This was written⟨ɀ⟩ from 1931 to 1955.

⟨zz⟩ is used inPinyin for/dz/ in languages such asYi. It is also used with that value in romanizedKabyle. In medievalCzech, it stood for/s/. InHadza it is ejective/tsʼ/.

⟨ɛn⟩, capital⟨Ɛn⟩, is used in manyWest African languages for the nasal vowel/ɛ̃/.⟨ɛ⟩ is an "open e".

⟨ɔn⟩, capital⟨Ɔn⟩, is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel/ɔ̃/.⟨ɔ⟩ is an "open o".

⟨œu⟩, capital⟨Œu⟩, is used inFrench for the vowels/œ/ and/ø/. The first element of the digraph,⟨œ⟩, is itself is aligature of⟨o⟩ and⟨e⟩, and⟨œu⟩ may also be written as thetrigraph⟨oeu⟩.

⟨ŋg⟩ is used in theGeneral Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for/ᵑɡ/.

⟨ŋk⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for/ᵑk/.

⟨ŋm⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for thelabial-velar nasal/ŋ͡m/.

⟨ŋv⟩, capital⟨Ŋv⟩, was used for/ŋʷ/ in the old orthography ofZhuang andBouyei; this is now spelled with thetrigraph⟨ngv⟩.

⟨ŋʼ⟩ is used inAdzera for the prenasalized glottal stop/ⁿʔ/.

⟨ſh⟩, capital⟨SH⟩ or sometimes⟨ŞH⟩, was a digraph used in the SloveneBohorič alphabet for/ʃ/. The first element,⟨ſ⟩, thelong s, is an archaic non-final form of the letter⟨s⟩.

⟨ǃʼ⟩⟨ǀʼ⟩⟨ǁʼ⟩⟨ǂʼ⟩ are used inJuǀʼhoan for its fourglottalized nasal clicks,/ᵑǃˀ,ᵑǀˀ,ᵑǁˀ,ᵑǂˀ/.

⟨ǃg⟩⟨ǀg⟩⟨ǁg⟩⟨ǂg⟩ are used inKhoekhoe for its four tenuisclicks,/ǃ,ǀ,ǁ,ǂ/.

⟨ǃh⟩⟨ǀh⟩⟨ǁh⟩⟨ǂh⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four aspiratednasal clicks,/ᵑ̊ǃʰ,ᵑ̊ǀʰ,ᵑ̊ǁʰ,ᵑ̊ǂʰ/, and in Juǀʼhoan for its plain aspirated clicks,/ǃʰ,ǀʰ,ǁʰ,ǂʰ/.

⟨ǃk⟩⟨ǀk⟩⟨ǁk⟩⟨ǂk⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricateejective-contour clicks,/ǃ͡χʼ,ǀ͡χʼ,ǁ͡χʼ,ǂ͡χʼ/.

⟨ǃn⟩⟨ǀn⟩⟨ǁn⟩⟨ǂn⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four plainnasal clicks,/ᵑǃ,ᵑǀ,ᵑǁ,ᵑǂ/.

⟨ǃx⟩⟨ǀx⟩⟨ǁx⟩⟨ǂx⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricatepulmonic-contour clicks,/ǃ͡χ,ǀ͡χ,ǁ͡χ,ǂ͡χ/.

⟨ьj⟩ was used inYañalif and someTurkic languages for the diphthong/ɤj/.

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