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Ahung parliament is a term used mainly in theUnited Kingdom andAustralia to describe a situation in which no singlepolitical party or pre-existingcoalition has anabsolute majority oflegislators (commonly known as members or seats) in aparliament or otherlegislature. The terms is applied to legislatures operating under theWestminster system and typically employingmajoritarian electoral systems.
This situation is also known as abalanced parliament,[1][2] or—forlocal government in theUnited Kingdom—a parliament underno overall control (NOC).[3][4][5] A hung parliament may result in acoalition government, aminority government, or asnap election if a government cannot be formed.
Inmulti-party systems, particularly whereproportional representation is employed, it is rare for a single party to hold a majority of the seats, and likewise rare for one party to form government on its own (i.e.coalition government is the norm). Consequently, the term is generally unused in these systems, as a legislature without a single-party majority is the norm and thus every parliament is "hung".
In the Westminster system, in the absence of a clear majority, no party or coalition has an automatic constitutional entitlement toform government. This can result in the formation of acoalition government of parties which can together command a majority, or the formation of aminority government, where the ruling party receivesconfidence and supply from smaller parties or independent legislators. If none of these solutions prove workable, the head of state may dissolve parliament (typically on the advice of the head of government), triggering asnap election.
InCanada, the term is generally not used, as it is typical for the party that wins a plurality (but not a majority) of seats to form aminority government on its own. These situations are typically called a "minority government" or "minority parliament" by the Canadian media. The ruling party then seeks to work with other parties on a case-by-case basis.
A normal objective ofparliamentary systems – especially those requiringresponsible government such as theWestminster system – is the formation of a stable government (i.e. ideally one that lasts a full parliamentary term, until the next election would normally be due). This requires a government to be able to muster sufficient votes in parliament to pass motions ofconfidence and supply, especiallymotions of no-confidence andbudget bills. If such motions fail, they normally result in thedissolution of parliament and a fresh election. In some parliamentary systems, however, a new government may be formed without recourse to an election – if, for example, a minor party holds thebalance of power, it may publicly express for the opposition, thereby creating a new majority.
The term "hung parliament" is most often used of parliaments dominated bytwo major parties or coalitions.General elections in such systems usually result in one party having an absolute majority and thus quickly forming a new government. In most parliamentary systems, a hung parliament is considered exceptional and is often seen as undesirable. In other contexts, a hung parliament may be seen as ideal – for example, if opinions among the voting public are polarised regarding one or more issues, a hung parliament may lead to the emergence of a compromise or consensus.
If a legislature isbicameral, the term "hung parliament" is usually used only with respect to thelower house.
In amulti-party system with legislators elected byproportional representation or a similar systems, it is usually exceptionally rare and difficult for any party to have an absolute majority. Thus, under such situations, every parliament is "hung" and coalition governments are normal. However, the term may be used to describe an election in which no established coalition wins an outright majority (such as theGerman federal election of 2005 or the2018 Italian general election).
The term apparently emerged in the United Kingdom, around the time of the 1974 election, by analogy with ahung jury, that is, one unable to reach a verdict.[1] However, whereas a hung jury results in amistrial, requiring a new trial, there is no general rule under which the absence of a clear majority requires a fresh election. In recent years, most "hung parliaments" have served their full term.
Australian parliaments are modelled on theWestminster system, with a hung parliament typically defined as a lack of a lower house parliamentary majority from either theAustralian Labor Party orLiberal/NationalCoalition.
Hung parliaments are rare at the federal level in Australia, as a de factotwo-party system, in which the Australian Labor Party competes against a permanent Liberal-National Coalition of theconservative parties, has existed with only brief interruptions since the early 20th century. Prior to 1910, no party had had a majority in theHouse of Representatives. As a result, there were frequent changes of government, several of which took place during parliamentary terms. Since 1910, when the two-party system was cemented, there have been three hung parliaments, the first in 1940, the second in 2010 and the third in 2018.
At the1940 federal election, incumbent Prime MinisterRobert Menzies secured the support of the twocrossbenchers and continued to govern, but in 1941 the independents switched their support to Labor, bringingJohn Curtin to power.
Declining support for the major parties in recent times is leading to more non-majoritarian outcomes at elections.[6] At the2010 federal election, which resulted in an exact 72–72 seat tie between Labor and the Liberal-National Coalition, incumbent Prime MinisterJulia Gillard secured the support of four out of six Independent and Green Party crossbenchers and continued to govern until2013.
Inthe 2016 federal election the Liberal-National Coalition won 76 seats, the bare minimum required to form a majority government. The Liberal-National Coalition government lost its majority government status after aby-election in 2018, but regained its majority in2019.
Hung parliaments are rather more common at a state level. TheTasmanian House of Assembly and the unicameralAustralian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly are both elected byHare-Clark proportional representation, thus, elections commonly return hung parliaments. In other states and territories, candidates contest single-member seats. With far fewer seats than federal parliament, hung parliaments are more likely to be elected. Recent examples includeNew South Wales in 1991 and2023, Queensland in1998 and2015,Victoria in 1999,South Australia in 1997 and2002,Western Australia in 2008, theAustralian Capital Territory in 2008 and2012 andTasmania in 2010.
In the lead up to 2025 election, polling results by the Australia Institute showed that more than twice as many Australians support a power-sharing arrangement in the next term of parliament as oppose one (41.7% vs 19.7%).[7] An analysis of 25 power-sharing parliaments in Australia shows crossbenchers negotiate a wide range of concessions for confidence and supply. Negotiations include parliamentary and policy reforms, extra staff and resources, and presiding officer positions for crossbenchers.[8]
InCanada, the term is generally not used, as it is typical for the party that wins a plurality (but not a majority) of seats to form aminority government on its own. These situations are typically called a "minority government" or "minority parliament" by the media. The ruling party then seeks to work with other parties on a case-by-case basis. The average lifespan of a minority government in Canada is two years.
Minority parliaments at either the federal and provincial level are an infrequent but not unusual occurrence in Canada.[9] Six of the previous eight recent federal elections have resulted in hung parliaments (the 38th,the 39th,the 40th,the 43rd,the 44th, andthe 45th). Following all six elections the largest party ruled as a "minority government". Although Canadian minority governments have tended to be short-lived, the two successive minorities under Prime MinisterStephen Harper managed to hold on to power from February 2006 until ano confidence vote in March 2011. The subsequent election saw a majority parliament elected with Harper'sConservative Party obtaining a 24-seat majority.
While most Canadian minority governments end in dissolution via non-confidence or a snap election call, there have been a few attempts to transition to a new government without returning to the ballot box. Most notably, the2008 Canadian Federal Election resulted in the2008–09 Canadian parliamentary dispute. While the Conservative Party had a plurality of seats, theLiberal Party andNew Democratic Party (NDP), supported by TheBloc Québécois, agreed to defeat the Conservatives in favour of a Liberal/NDPcoalition government. On 4 December 2008,Governor GeneralMichaëlle Jean grantedPrime MinisterStephen Harper's request for aprorogation of Parliament on the condition that parliament reconvene early in the new year. The first session of the 40th parliament thus ended, delaying and ultimately avoiding a vote of non-confidence.[10]
At the territorial level, a unique situation happened in the2021 Yukon general election, in which the electoral district ofVuntut Gwitchin resulted in a tie. A judicial recount was held and the tie remained. A draw was held between the two candidates which ultimately namedNDP challengerAnnie Blake the winner against incumbentLiberal cabinet minister and MLAPauline Frost. This victory ultimately resulted in a hung parliament in theYukon legislature with theNDP holding the balance of power.
The2022 Fijian general election resulted in a hung parliament, with no party gaining a majority of seats. Although theFijiFirst party, led by then-Prime MinisterFrank Bainimarama, won the most seats, the three other parties that won seats (thePeople's Alliance, theNational Federation Party and theSocial Democratic Liberal Party) formed a coalition andSitiveni Rabuka, leader of the People's Alliance, became the subsequent Prime Minister, ending 16 years of Bainimarama's rule.
Since the establishment of thetwo-round system for parliamentary elections in 1958, hung parliaments are unusual under theFifth Republic. Still, 2 general elections out of 16 resulted in such a parliamentary configuration since 1958:
India is afederativemulti-partyparliamentary democracy with lower and upper houses at both national andsub-national levels.[11]
However, despite having a multi-party system in place, it has witnessed a clear majority parliament for 45 years against its transition to democratic republic being 70 years old.[12][13][14]
It has 8 recognizednational parties with influence over major parts of India andregional parties with bases in certain states.[15][16]
From 1989 to 2014, India had a continuous period of parliaments producingcoalition governments, with clearer majorities for theIndian National Congress andJanata Party before this period and for theBharatiya Janata Party after it.[17] India returned to the norm of a hung parliament in the2024 General Elections with bothBJP andINC failing to produce majority in it.[18] The confidence ofLok Sabha, lower house ofIndian Parliament elected ingeneral elections determines the prime minister and ruling party of India.
Hung assemblies within states and alliances between national and regional parties at sub-national level are common.
Because Ireland usesPR-STV, it is rare for any one party to have a majority on its own. The last such occasion was in 1977. However, one or other coalitions are known to be possible before and during the election. Therefore, a "hung Dáil" (Dáil Éireann being the lower and most dominant chamber of the Oireachtas/Parliament) in Ireland refers more to the inability of a coalition of parties who traditionally enter government together or would be expected to govern together, from doing so.
The President has no direct role in the formation of governments in the case of a hung parliament. However, he retains the power to convene a meeting of either or both the Dáil and Senate which could become important if there was a government trying to use parliamentary recess to prevent confidence votes and hold onto power. The President may also refuse to dissolve Dáil Eireann and call an election if the Taoiseach loses a vote of confidence, instead giving the other parties a chance to see if they can put together a government without proceeding to another election.
In 2016, Fine Gael and Labour, who had been in government the previous five years, were unable, due to Labour's collapse, to enter government again. Fianna Fáil had enough seats to put together a rainbow government with the other centre-left, hard left parties and independents but negotiations broke down. Fianna Fáil had also promised not to enter coalition with Sinn Féin.
The press began to speculate about a Germany style "Grand Coalition" similar to the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats there. Many members of FF considered FG tooright wing to enter coalition with and threatened to leave the party this came to pass. As talks continued on without a new government (the old government, constitutionally, which had just been voted out, remaining in power including ministers who had lost their seats) FF agreed to allow a government to form by abstention. The parliamentary arithmetic fell in such a way that if FF TD's abstained on confidence and supply matters, a FG minority government could, with the support of a group of independents, form a new government. This was agreed in exchange for a number of policy concessions. Once the deal with FF was signed, Taoiseach Enda Kenny conducted talks with the independents and entered government for a second term.
Allparliamentary elections inIsrael have resulted in hung parliaments. TheKnesset consists of 120 members and the highest number of seats a single faction has ever received was the 56 membersAlignment (Ma'arach) got in theOctober 1969 elections. When the same faction was formed in January 1969 it consisted of 63 members, the only instance to date of a faction with an absolute majority in the Knesset. The lowest number of seats the largest faction has ever received in a Knesset election was 26 members received byOne Israel in the1999 Israeli general election.
The2022 general election of Malaysia resulted in a hung parliament with no party or party coalition winning a simple majority for the first time in Malaysian history.[19] Following five days of deliberation and negotiations within coalitions and parties, theYang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia swore inPakatan Harapan (PH) chairmanAnwar Ibrahim, whose coalition won the most seats, as the tenthPrime Minister of Malaysia on 24 November 2022.[20] To achieve a parliamentary majority, Pakatan Harapan formed agrand coalition government withBarisan Nasional (BN),Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS),Gabungan Rakyat Sabah (GRS) and various independent parties.[21]
Hung parliaments were relatively uncommon in New Zealand prior to the introduction of proportional representation in 1993. On only four occasions since the beginnings of party politics in1890 had a hung parliament occurred under thefirst-past-the-post system: in1911,1922,1928 and1931. The rarity between 1936 and 1996 was due to the regression into a two-party system, alternating between the long dominatingNew Zealand Labour Party andNew Zealand National Party.[22] From the firstMMP election in1996 until the2020 election no single party gained an outright majority in parliament. The 2020 election was the first to return a majority – a narrow majority for the Labour Party – since 1993.[23]
In theUnited Kingdom, before World War I, a largely stable two-party system existed for generations; traditionally, only theTories andWhigs, or from the mid-19th century theConservative andLiberal parties, managed to deliver Members of Parliament in significant numbers. Hung parliaments were thus rare, especially during the 19th century. The possibility of change arose when, in the aftermath of theAct of Union, 1800, a number of Irish MPs took seats in the House, though initiallythese followed the traditional alignments. However, two Reform Acts (in 1867 andin 1884) significantly extended the franchise and redrew the constituencies, and coincided witha change in Irish politics. Following the1885 general election, neither party had an overall majority. TheIrish Parliamentary Party held the balance of power and madeIrish Home Rule a condition of their support. However, the Liberal Party split on the issue of Irish Home Rule, leading toanother general election in 1886, in which the Conservatives won the most seats and governed with the support of the fragment of Liberalism opposed to Home Rule, theLiberal Unionist Party.
Both theelection of January 1910, and that ofDecember 1910 produced a hung parliament with an almost identical number of seats won by the governing Liberal Party and the Conservative Party. This was due both to the constitutional crisis and to the rise of theLabour Party. Theelections of 1929 resulted in the last hung parliament for many years; in the meantime, Labour had replaced the Liberals as one of the two dominating parties.
Since the elections of 1929, three general elections have resulted in hung parliaments in the UK. The first was theelection in February 1974, and the ensuing parliament lasted only untilOctober. The second was theMay 2010 election, the result of which was a hung parliament with the Conservative party as the largest single party. The results for the three main parties were: Conservatives 306, Labour 258, Liberal Democrats 57.[24] The third one resulted from thesnap election held inJune 2017 that had been called for byTheresa May in order to strengthen her majority heading intoBrexit negotiations later in 2017. However, this election backfired on May and herConservative Party, resulting in a hung parliament after the snap election.[25]
The formation of the coalition resulting from the 2010 election led to theFixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which instituted fixed five-year Parliaments and transferred the power to callearly elections from the Monarch on the advice of Prime Minister to Parliament itself. This was the idea of theDeputy Prime MinisterNick Clegg, then the leader of theLiberal Democrats, who said that this would stop the Prime Minister and leader of the Conservative Party,David Cameron, from calling a snap election to end the hung parliament, as many other Conservatives had requested. This act was revoked in 2022 through theDissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022 to return the powers of dissolution to the Monarch.
Hung parliaments can also arise when slim government majorities are eroded byby-election defeats anddefection ofMembers of Parliament to opposition parties, as well asresignations of MPs from theHouse of Commons. This happened in December 1996 to the Conservative government ofJohn Major (1990–97) and in mid-1978 to the Labour government ofJames Callaghan (1976–79); this latter period covers the era known as theWinter of Discontent. The minority government of Jim Callaghan came when Labour ended their 15-monthLib–Lab pact with the Liberals, having lost their majority in early 1977.
According to researchers Andrew Blick and Stuart Wilks-Heeg, the phrase "hung parliament" did not enter into common usage in the UK until the mid-1970s. It was first used in the press by journalistSimon Hoggart inThe Guardian in 1974.[26]
Academic treatments of hung parliaments includeDavid Butler'sGoverning Without a Majority: Dilemmas for Hung Parliaments in Britain (Sheridan House, 1986) andVernon Bogdanor's 'Multi-Party Politics and the Constitution' (Cambridge University Press, 1983).
In countries where parliaments under majority control are the norm, a hung parliament is often viewed as an unusual and undesirable election result, leading to relatively weak and unstable government. A period of uncertainty after the election is common, as major party leaders negotiate with independents and minor parties to establish a working majority.
An aspiringhead of government may seek to build acoalition government; inWestminster systems, this typically involves agreement on a joint legislative programme and a number ofministerial posts going to the minor coalition partners, in return for a stable majority. Alternatively, a minority government may be formed, establishingconfidence and supply agreements in return for policy concessions agreed in advance, or relying on case by case support.
In theWestern Australian state election of 2008 theAustralian Labor Party won more seats than theLiberal Party at 28 to 24. TheNational Party along with three independents had the seats needed to give either party a majority. To help the Liberal Party form government, the Nationals supported the party on the condition that theRoyalties for Regions policy was implemented.
In the1999 Victorian state election, the Labor Party won 42 seats, while the incumbent Liberal National Coalition retained 43, with three seats falling to independents. The Labor Party formed a minority government with the three independents.
The2010 Tasmanian state election resulted in a hung parliament. After a period of negotiation, the incumbent Labor government led byDavid Bartlett was recommissioned, but containing the Leader of the Tasmanian Greens,Nick McKim, as a minister, and the Greens'Cassy O'Connor as Cabinet Secretary.
In the2010 federal election, neither Labor nor the Liberal coalition secured the majority of seats required to form a Government in their own right. In order to counter the potential instability of minority government involved groups may negotiate written agreements defining their terms of support. Such measures were undertaken by theGillard Government in 2010.[27]
In the1988 French legislative elections, a hung parliament occurred with theSocialists as the largest party. Following talks with parliamentary leaders, Prime MinisterMichel Rocard formed a new minority government, incorporating centrist ministers in a sort of unofficial coalition with the pivotal independent centrist group in the Assembly, ensuring a somewhat stable government until 1991. His direct successors, Prime MinistersÉdith Cresson andPierre Bérégovoy, both formed minority governments, relying alternately on the Communists' or the Centrists' support in Parliament (depending on the issue).
In the2022 French legislative elections, a hung parliament occurred again with President Macron'sEnsemble coalition as the largest bloc in the National Assembly. Both the President and the Prime Minister held talks with opposition leaders in order to try forming a coalition government with the centre-right (LR) and the centre-left (PS and the Greens), or at least reaching some sort of confidence-and-supply deal with them. Talks rapidly failed since no opposition party showed interest in propelling Macron's administration. In July 2022, Prime MinisterBorne reshuffled her Cabinet and officially formed aminority government. As of June 2023, it is still the current government of France.
InIndia, if an election results in a 'hung assembly' in one of the stateLegislative Assemblies and no party is capable of gaining confidence, then fresh elections are announced to be held as soon as possible. Until this occursPresident's Rule is applied. InIndia there have been many situations of hung assemblies in the state legislatures. However, invariably, the President of India in the case of Lok Sabha elections and the Governor of the state concerned, in the case of state elections, would attempt to give opportunities to the parties, starting with the one that got the maximum number of seats in the elections, to explore possibilities of forming a coalition government, before bringing in President's Rule.
The first such occasion was in1911 when theLiberal Party won fewer seats than the oppositionReform Party despite tallying the most votes. A vote of no confidence was placed by Reform and the Liberals survived by just one vote. This prompted Prime Minister SirJoseph Ward to resign, his replacementThomas Mackenzie was later defeated in July 1912 in a vote with several MPs and Labour crossing the floor to vote with the opposition, the last time in New Zealand history a government has changed on a confidence vote. This broke 23 years of Liberal governance andWilliam Massey formed a new Reform Party government. Massey governed through to his death in 1925, though in1922 the Reform Party suffered major losses and Massey was forced negotiate with several Independent MPs to retain power.
In1928, Reform were ousted from governance and Joseph Ward once again won back power. However, the Reform and United (Liberal) parties were tied on seats with Labour holding the balance of power. Labour chose to back Ward rather than let Reform leaderGordon Coates remain in office. In the next election in1931, there was again a three-way deadlock. On this occasion the Reform and United parties became a coalition government out of mutual fear of Labour's ever-increasing appeal as theGreat Depression worsened.
1993 was the last time a hung parliament occurred in New Zealand. Governor-General DameCatherine Tizard asked SirDavid Beattie to form a committee, along with three retired appeal court judges, to decide whom to appoint as Prime Minister.[28] However, National won an extra seat after special votes were counted, giving National 50 seats and Labour 45 seats (4 were won by third-party candidates). Labour's SirPeter Tapsell agreed to becomeSpeaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives. As a result, National did not lose a vote in the house and maintained a dubious majority for three years.
In theFebruary 1974 general election, no party gained an overall parliamentary majority. Labour won the most seats (301, which was 17 seats short of an overall majority) with the Conservatives on 297 seats, although the Conservatives had a larger share of the popular vote. As the incumbentPrime Minister,Edward Heath remained in office attempting to build a coalition with theLiberals. When these negotiations were unsuccessful Heath resigned and Labour led byHarold Wilson took over in a minority government.
In the2010 UK general election, another hung parliament occurred with theConservatives as the largest party, and discussions followed to help create a stable government. This resulted in agreement on a coalition government, which was also amajority government, between theConservative Party, which won the most votes and seats in the election, and theLiberal Democrats.
In the2017 UK general election, a hung parliament occurred for the second time in seven years with theConservatives again being the largest party. The Conservatives led byTheresa May formed a minority government, supported by aconfidence-and-supply agreement with theNorthern Ireland'sDemocratic Unionist Party.
There have been occasions when, although a parliament or assembly is technically hung, the party in power has aworking majority. For example, in the United Kingdom, the tradition is that theSpeaker and Deputy Speakers do not vote andSinn Féin MPs never take their seats per their policy ofabstentionism, so these members can be discounted from the opposition numbers.
In 2005, this was the case in the 60-seatNational Assembly for Wales, where Labour lost their majority whenPeter Law was expelled for standing against the official candidate in the2005 Westminster election in theBlaenau Gwent constituency. When the Assembly wasfirst elected on 1 May 2003,Labour won 30 seats,Plaid Cymru won 12, theConservatives won 11,Liberal Democrats won 6, and theJohn Marek Independent Party won a seat.
WhenDafydd Elis-Thomas (Plaid Cymru) was reelected as the presiding officer, this reduced the number of opposition AMs who could vote to 29, as the presiding officer votes only in the event of a tie and, even then, not on party political lines but according toSpeaker Denison's rule. Thus, Labour had a working majority of one seat until Law ran in Blaenau Gwent.[29]
