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Hun andpo are types ofsouls inChinese philosophy andtraditional religion. Within this ancientsoul dualism tradition, every living human has both ahun spiritual, ethereal,yang soul which leaves the body after death, and also apo corporeal, substantive,yin soul which remains with the corpse of the deceased. Some controversy exists over the number of souls in a person; for instance, one of the traditions withinDaoism proposes a soul structure ofsanhunqipo (三魂七魄), i.e., "threehun and sevenpo". The historianYü Ying-shih describeshun andpo as "two pivotal concepts that have been, and remain today, the key to understanding Chinese views of the human soul and the afterlife".[1]
Like manyChinese characters,魂 and魄 are"phono-semantic" or "radical-phonetic" graphs combining asemanticradical showing the rough meaning of the character with aphonetic guide to its formerpronunciation inAncient Chinese.魂 and its variant䰟 combine the "ghost radical"鬼, apictogramoriginally showing a figure with an odd face and tail that is used independently as a word forChinese ghosts anddemons, with the character云, a pictogram originally showing acloud andbelieved to have been pronounced /*[ɢ]ʷə[r]/ or /*ɢun/ in Ancient Chinese.魄 combines the same radical with the character白 of uncertain origin (possibly a pictogram of an acorn to represent its inner color) but believed to have been pronounced /*bˤrak/ or /*braːɡ/ in Ancient Chinese.
Besides the common meaning of "a soul",po魄 was avariant Chinese character forpo霸 "alunar phase" andpo粕 "dregs". TheBook of Documents usedpo魄 as a graphic variant forpo霸 "dark aspect of the moon" – this character usually meansba霸 "overlord; hegemon". For example, "On the third month, when (the growth phase,生魄) of the moon began to wane, the duke of Chow [i.e.,Duke of Zhou] commenced the foundations, and proceeded to build the new great city of Lǒ".[2] TheZhuangzi "[Writings of] Master Zhuang" wrotezaopo糟粕 (lit. "rotten dregs") "worthless; unwanted; waste matter" with apo魄 variant. A wheelwright seesDuke Huan of Qi with books by dead sages and says, "what you are reading there is nothing but the [糟魄] chaff and dregs of the men of old!".[3]
In thehistory of Chinese writing[broken anchor], characters forpo魄/霸 "lunar brightness" appeared before those forhun魂 "soul; spirit". The spiritualhun魂 andpo魄 "dual souls" are first recorded inWarring States period (475–221 BCE)seal script characters. The lunarpo魄 or霸 "moon's brightness" appears in bothZhou dynasty (1045–256 BCE)Bronzeware script andoracle bone script, but not inShang dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BCE) oracle inscriptions. The earliest form of this "lunar brightness" character was found on a (c. 11th century BCE) Zhou oracle bone inscription.[4]
Thepo soul'setymology is better understood than thehun soul's. Schuessler[5] reconstructshun魂 "'spiritual soul' which makes a human personality" andpo魄 "vegetative or animal soul ... which accounts for growth and physiological functions" asMiddle Chineseγuən andpʰak fromOld Chinese *wûn and *phrâk.
The (c. 80 CE)Baihu Tang白虎堂 gave pseudo-etymologies forhun andpo through Chinese character puns. It explainshun魂 withzhuan傳 "deliver; pass on; impart; spread" andyun芸 "rue (used to keep insects out of books); to weed", andpo魄 withpo迫 " compel; force; coerce; urgent" andbai白 "white; bright".
What do the wordshun and [po] mean?Hun expresses the idea of continuous propagation ([zhuan]傳), unresting flight; it is theqi of the Lesser Yang, working in man in an external direction, and it governs the nature (or the instincts, [xing]性). [Po] expresses the idea of a continuous pressing urge ([po]迫) on man; it is the [qi] of the Lesser Yin, and works in him, governing the emotions ([qing]情).Hun is connected with the idea of weeding ([yun]芸), for with the instincts the evil weeds (in man's nature) are removed. [Po] is connected with the idea of brightening ([bai]白), for with the emotions the interior (of the personality) is governed.[6]
Etymologically, Schuessler sayspò魄 "animal soul" "is the same word as"pò霸 "alunar phase". He cites theZuozhuan (534 BCE, see below) using the lunarjishengpo既生魄 to mean "With the first development of a fetus grows the vegetative soul".
Pò, the soul responsible for growth, is the same aspò the waxing and waning of the moon". The meaning 'soul' has probably been transferred from the moon since men must have been aware of lunar phases long before they had developed theories on the soul. This is supported by the etymology 'bright', and by the inverted word order which can only have originated with meteorological expressions ... The association with the moon explains perhaps why thepò soul is classified as Yin ... in spite of the etymology 'bright' (which should be Yang), hun's Yang classification may be due to the association with clouds and by extension sky, even though the word invokes 'dark'. 'Soul' and 'moon' are related in other cultures, by cognation or convergence, as inTibeto-Burman and Proto-Lolo–Burmese *s/ʼ-la "moon; soul; spirit",Written Tibetan cognatesbla "soul" andzla "moon", and Proto-Miao–Yao *bla "spirit; soul; moon".[7]
Lunar associations ofpo are evident in theClassical Chinese termschanpo蟾魄 "the moon" (with "toad;toad in the moon; moon") andhaopo皓魄 "moon; moonlight" (with "white; bright; luminous").
The semantics ofpo魄 "white soul" probably originated with霸 "lunar whiteness". Zhou bronze inscriptions commonly recorded lunar phases with the termsjishengpo既生魄 "after the brightness has grown" andjisipo既死魄 "after the brightness has died", which Schuessler explains as "second quarter of the lunar month" and "last quarter of the lunar month". Chinese scholars have variously interpreted these two terms as lunar quarters or fixed days, and[8]Wang Guowei's lunar-quarter analysis the most likely. Thus,jishengpo is from the 7th/8th to the 14th/15th days of the lunar month andjisipo is from the 23rd/24th to the end of the month. Yü translates them as "after the birth of the crescent" and "after the death of the crescent".[4] Etymologically, lunar and spiritualpo <pʰak < *phrâk魄 are cognate withbai <bɐk < *brâk白 "white".[9][10] According toHu Shih,po etymologically means "white, whiteness, and bright light"; "The primitive Chinese seem to have regarded the changing phases of the moon as periodic birth and death of its [po], its 'white light' or soul."[11] Yü says this ancient association between thepo soul and the "growing light of the new moon is of tremendous importance to our understanding of certain myths related to the seventh day of the months."[12] Two celebrated examples inChinese mythology areXi Wangmu and Emperor Wu meeting on the seventh day of the first lunar month andThe Princess and the Cowherd orQixi Festival held on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month.
The etymology ofhun <γuən < *wûn魂 is comparatively less certain. Hu said, "The wordhun is etymologically the same as the wordyun, meaning "clouds."[13] The clouds float about and seem more free and more active than the cold, white-lighted portion of the growing and waning moon." Schuessler cites two possibilities.
Sincepò is the 'bright' soul,hún is the 'dark' soul and therefore cognate toyún雲 'cloud',[14] perhaps in the sense of 'shadowy' because some believe that thehún soul will live after death in a world of shadows.[15][16]
The correlative "soul" wordshun魂 andpo魄 have several meanings in Chinese plus many translations and explanations in English. The table below shows translation equivalents from some majorChinese-English dictionaries.
| Dictionary | Hun魂 | Po魄 |
|---|---|---|
| Giles[17] | The soul, that part of the soul (as opp. to魄) which goes to heaven and is able to leave the body, carrying with it an appearance of physical form; the subliminal self, expl. as人陽神. The mind; wits; faculties. | The soul; that part of the soul (as opposed to魂) which is indissolubly attached to the body, and goes down to earth with it at death; the supraliminal self, expl. as人陰神. Form; shape. The disc or substance of the moon from the time it begins to wane to new moon. |
| Mathews[18] | The soul, the spiritual part of man that ascends to heaven, as contrasted with魄. The wits; the spiritual faculties. | The animal or inferior soul; the animal or sentient life which inheres in the body – the body in this sense; the animals spirits; this soul goes to the earth with the body. |
| Chao and Yang[19] | the soul (of a living person or of the dead) | the physical side of the soul |
| Karlgren[20] | spiritual soul (as opp. to魄) | the animal soul of man (as opp. to魂) |
| Lin[21] | Soul; the finer spirits of man as dist.魄, the baser spirits or animal forces | (Taoism) the baser animal spirits of man, contrasted with finer elements魂 (三魂七魄 three finer spirits and seven animal spirits), the two together conceived as animating the human body |
| Liang[22] | a soul; a spirit. | 1. (Taoism) vigor; animation; life. 2. form; shape; body. 3. the dark part of the moon. |
| Wu[23] | ① soul ② mood; spirit ③ the lofty spirit of a nation | ① soul ② vigour; spirit |
| Ling et al.[24] | ① same as靈魂 ... soul; believed by the superstitious to be an immaterial spiritual entity distinguished from but coexistent with the physical body of a person and a dominant spiritual force, and which leaves upon the person's death. ② spirit; mood. ③ lofty spirit. | ① soul; spiritual matter believed by religious people as dependent on human's body. ② vigour; spirit. |
| DeFrancis[25] | soul, spirit; mood | ① soul; ② vigor; spirit |
Both Chinesehun andpo are translatable as English "soul" or "spirit", and both are basic components in "soul"compounds. In the following examples, all Chinese-English translation equivalents are from DeFrancis.[25]
Hunpo andlinghun are the most frequently used among these "soul" words.
Joseph Needham andLu Gwei-djen, eminenthistorians of science and technology in China,[26] definehun andpo in modern terms. "Peering as far as one can into these ancient psycho-physiological ideas, one gains the impression that the distinction was something like that between what we would call motor and sensory activity on the one hand, and also voluntary as against vegetative processes on the other."
Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein cautions abouthun andpo translations: "Although the term "souls" is often used to refer to them, they are better seen as two types of vital entities, the source of life in every individual. Thehun is Yang, luminous, and volatile, while thepo is Yin, somber, and heavy."[27]
Based onZuozhuan usages ofhun andpo in four historical contexts, Yü extrapolates thatpo was the original name for a human soul, and the dualistic conception ofhun andpo "began to gain currency in the middle of the sixth century" BCE.[4]
Two earlier 6th century contexts used thepo soul alone. Both describeTian天 "heaven; god"duo奪 "seizing; taking away" a person'spo, which resulted in a loss of mental faculties. In 593 BCE (Duke Xuan 15th year),[28] after Zhao Tong趙同 behaved inappropriately at the Zhou court, an observer predicted: "In less than ten years [Zhao Tong] will be sure to meet with great calamity. Heaven has taken his [魄] wits away from him." In 543 BCE (Duke Xiang 29th year),[29] Boyou伯有 from the state ofZheng acted irrationally, which an official interpreted as: "Heaven is destroying [Boyou], and has taken away his [魄] reason." Boyou's political enemies subsequently arranged to take away his hereditary position and assassinate him.
Two later sixth-centuryZuozhuan contexts usedpo together with thehun soul. In 534 BCE, the ghost of Boyou伯有 (above) was seeking revenge on his murderers, and terrifying the people of Zheng (Duke Zhao, Year &).[30] The philosopher and statesmanZi Chan, realizing that Boyou's loss of hereditary office had caused his spirit to be deprived of sacrifices, reinstated his son to the family position, and the ghost disappeared. When a friend asked Zi Chan to explain ghosts, he gave what Yu calls "thelocus classicus on the subject of the human soul in the Chinese tradition".[31]
When a man is born, (we see) in his first movements what is called the [魄] animal soul. [既生魄] After this has been produced, it is developed into what is called the [魂] spirit. By the use of things the subtle elements are multiplied, and the [魂魄] soul and spirit become strong. They go on in this way, growing in etherealness and brightness, till they become (thoroughly) spiritual and intelligent. When an ordinary man or woman dies a violent death, the [魂魄] soul and spirit are still able to keep hanging about men in the shape of an evil apparition; how much more might this be expected in the case of [Boyou]. ... Belonging to a family which had held for three generations the handle of government, his use of things had been extensive, the subtle essences which he had imbibed had been many. His clan also was a great one, and his connexions [sic] were distinguished. Is it not entirely reasonable that, having died a violent death, he should be a [鬼] ghost?[32]
Compare the translation of Needham and Lu, who interpret this as an early Chinese discourse on embryology.
When a foetus begins to develop, it is (due to) the [po]. (When this soul has given it a form) then comes the Yang part, calledhun. The essences ([qing]情) of many things (wu物) then give strength to these (two souls), and so they acquire the vitality, animation and good cheer (shuang爽) of these essences. Thus eventually there arises spirituality and intelligence (shen ming神明).[33]
In 516 BCE (Duke Zhao, Year 20), the Duke ofSong and a guest named Shusun叔孫 were both seen weeping during a supposedly joyful gathering. Yue Qi樂祁, a Song court official, said:
This year both our ruler and [Shusun] are likely to die. I have heard that joy in the midst of grief and grief in the midst of joy are signs of a loss of [xin心] mind. The essential vigor and brightness of the mind is what we call the [hun] and the [po]. When these leave it, how can the man continue long?[34]
Hu proposed, "The idea of ahun may have been a contribution from the southern peoples" (who originatedZhao Hun rituals) and then spread to the north sometime during the sixth century BCE.[35] Calling this southern hypothesis "quite possible", Yü cites theChuci, associated with the southern state ofChu, demonstrating "there can be little doubt that in the southern tradition thehun was regarded as a more active and vital soul than thep'o.[36] TheChuci useshun 65 times andpo 5 times (4 inhunpo, which theChuci uses interchangeably withhun).[37]
The identification of theyin-yang principle with thehun andpo souls evidently occurred in the late fourth and early third centuries BCE,[38] and by "the second century at the latest, the Chinese dualistic conception of soul had reached its definitive formulation." TheLiji (11), compoundshun andpo withqi "breath; life force" andxing "form; shape; body" inhunqi魂氣 andxingpo形魄. "The [魂氣] intelligent spirit returns to heaven the [形魄] body and the animal soul return to the earth; and hence arose the idea of seeking (for the deceased) in sacrifice in the unseen darkness and in the bright region above."[39] Compare this modern translation,[38] "The breath-soul (hun-ch'I魂氣) returns to heaven; the bodily soul (hsing-p'o形魄) returns to earth. Therefore, in sacrificial-offering one should seek the meaning in theyin-yang陰陽 principle." Yü summarizeshun/po dualism.
Ancient Chinese generally believed that the individual human life consists of a bodily part as well as a spiritual part. The physical body relies for its existence on food and drink produced by the earth. The spirit depends for its existence on the invisible life force calledch'i, which comes into the body from heaven. In other words, breathing and eating are the two basic activities by which a man continually maintains his life. But the body and the spirit are each governed by a soul, namely, thep'o and thehun. It is for this reason that they are referred to in the passage just quoted above as the bodily-soul (hsing-p'o) and the breath-soul (hun-ch'i) respectively.[40]
Loewe explains with a candle metaphor; the physicalxing is the "wick and substance of a candle", the spiritualpo andhun are the "force that keeps the candle alight" and "light that emanates from the candle".[41]
The Yinpo and Yanghun were correlated with Chinese spiritual and medical beliefs.Hun魂 is associated withshen神 "spirit; god" andpo魄 withgui鬼 "ghost; demon; devil".[14] The (c. 1st century BCE)Lingshu Jing medical text spiritually appliesWu Xing "Five Phases" theory to theZang-fu "organs", associating thehun soul with "liver" and blood, and thepo soul with "lung" and breath.
The liver stores the blood, and the blood houses thehun. When the vital energies of the liver are depleted, this results in fear; when repleted, this results in anger. ... The lungs store the breath, and the breath houses thepo. When the vital energies of the lungs are depleted, then the nose becomes blocked and useless, and so there is diminished breath; when they are repleted, there is panting, a full chest, and one must elevate the head to breathe.[42]
TheLingshu Jing[43] also records that thehun andpo souls taking flight can cause restless dreaming, and eye disorders can scatter the souls causing mental confusion. Han medical texts reveal thathun andpo departing from the body does not necessarily cause death but rather distress and sickness. Brashier parallels the translation ofhun andpo, "If one were to put an English word to them, they are our 'wits', our ability to demarcate clearly, and like the English concept of "wits," they can be scared out of us or can dissipate in old age."[44]
During theHan Dynasty, the belief inhun andpo remained prominent, although there was a great diversity of different, sometimes contradictory, beliefs about the afterlife.[45][46] Han burial customs provided nourishment and comfort for thepo with the placement ofgrave goods, including food, commodities, and evenmoney within the tomb of the deceased.[45]Chinese jade was believed to delay the decomposition of a body. Pieces of jade were commonly placed in bodily orifices, or rarely crafted intojade burial suits.
Generations of sinologists have repeatedly asserted that Han-era people commonly believed the heavenlyhun and earthlypo souls separated at death, but recent scholarship and archeology suggest thathunpo dualism was more an academic theory than a popular faith.Anna Seidel analyzed funerary texts discovered in Han tombs, which mention not onlypo souls but alsohun remaining with entombed corpses, and wrote, "Indeed, a clear separation of ap'o, appeased with the wealth included in the tomb, from ahun departed to heavenly realms is not possible."[47] Seidel later called for reappraising Han abstract notions ofhun andpo, which "do not seem to have had as wide a currency as we assumed up to now."[48] Pu Muzhou surveyed usages of the wordshun andpo on Han Dynastybei碑 "stele" erected at graves and shrines, and concluded, "The thinking of ordinary people seems to have been quite hazy on the matter of what distinguished thehun from thepo."[49][50] These stele texts contrasted souls between a corporealhun orhunpo at the cemetery and a spiritualshen at the family shrine. Kenneth Brashier reexamined the evidence forhunpo dualism and relegated it "to the realm of scholasticism rather than general beliefs on death."[51] Brashier cited several Han sources (grave deeds,Book of the Later Han, andJiaoshi Yilin) attesting beliefs that "thehun remains in the grave instead of flying up to heaven", and suggested it "was sealed into the grave to prevent its escape."[52] Another Han text, theFengsu Tongyi says, "The vital energy of thehun of a dead person floats away; therefore a mask is made in order to retain it."
Hun andpo souls, explains Yü, "are regarded as the very essence of the mind, the source of knowledge and intelligence. Death is thought to follow inevitably when thehun and thep'o leave the body. We have reason to believe that around this time the idea ofhun was still relatively new."[53]
Soon after death, it was believed that a person'shun andpo could be temporarily reunited through a ritual called thefu復 "recall; return",zhaohun招魂 "summon thehun soul", orzhaohun fupo招魂復魄 "to summon thehun-soul to reunite with thepo-soul". The earliest known account of this ritual is found in the (3rd century BCE)Chuci poemsZhao Hun招魂 "Summons of the Soul" andDazhao大招 "The Great Summons".[55] For example, thewu Yang (巫陽) summons a man's soul in the "Zhao Hun".
O soul, come back! Why have you left your old abode and sped to the earth's far corners, deserting the place of your delight to meet all those things of evil omen?
O soul, come back! In the east you cannot abide. There are giants there a thousand fathoms tall, who seek only for souls to catch, and ten suns that come out together, melting metal, dissolving stone ...
O soul, come back! In the south you cannot stay. There the people have tattooed faces and blackened teeth, they sacrifice flesh of men, and pound their bones to paste ...
O soul, come back! For the west holds many perils: The Moving Sands stretch on for a hundred leagues. You will be swept into the Thunder's Chasm and dashed in pieces, unable to help yourself ...
O soul, come back! In the north you may not stay. There the layered ice rises high, and the snowflakes fly for a hundred leagues and more...
O soul, come back! Climb not to heaven above. For tigers and leopards guard the gates, with jaws ever ready to rend up mortal men ...
O soul, come back! Go not down to the Land of Darkness, where the Earth God lies, nine-coiled, with dreadful horns on his forehead, and a great humped back and bloody thumbs, pursuing men, swift-footed ...[56]
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Hun魂 andpo魄 spiritual concepts were important in severalDaoist traditions. For instance, "Since the volatilehun is fond of wandering and leaving the body during sleep, techniques were devised to restrain it, one of which entailed a method of staying constantly awake."[57]
Thesanhunqipo三魂七魄 "threehun and sevenpo" were anthropomorphized and visualized.Ge Hong's (c. 320 CE)Baopuzi frequently mentions thehun andpo "ethereal and gross souls". The "Genii" Chapter argues that the departing of these dual souls cause illness and death.
All men, wise or foolish, know that their bodies contain ethereal as well as gross breaths, and that when some of them quit the body, illness ensues; when they all leave him, a man dies. In the former case, the magicians have amulets for restraining them; in the latter case,The Rites [i.e.,Yili] provide ceremonials for summoning them back. These breaths are most intimately bound up with us, for they are born when we are, but over a whole lifetime probably nobody actually hears or sees them. Would one conclude that they do not exist because they are neither seen nor heard? (2)[58]
This "magicians" translatesfangshi方士 "doctor; diviner' magician". Bothfangshi anddaoshi道士 "Daoist priests" developed methods and rituals to summonhun andpo back into a person's body. The "Gold and Cinnabar" chapter records aDaoist alchemical reanimation pill that can return thehun andpo souls to a recent corpse:Taiyi zhaohunpo dan fa太乙招魂魄丹法 "The Great One's Elixir Method for Summoning Souls".
In T'ai-i's elixir for Summoning Gross and Ethereal Breaths the five minerals [i.e.,cinnabar,realgar,arsenolite,malachite, andmagnetite] are used and sealed with Six-One lute as in the Nine-crucible cinnabars. It is particularly effective for raising those who have died of a stroke. In cases where the corpse has been dead less than four days, force open the corpse's mouth and insert a pill of this elixir and one of sulphur, washing them down its gullet with water. The corpse will immediately come to life. In every case the resurrected remark that they have seen a messenger with a baton of authority summoning them. (4)[59]
For visualizing the ten souls, theBaopuzi "Truth on Earth" chapter recommends takingdayao大藥 "great medicines" and practicing afenxing "divide/multiply the body"multilocation technique.
My teacher used to say that to preserve Unity was to practice jointly Bright Mirror, and that on becoming successful in the mirror procedure a man would be able to multiply his body to several dozen all with the same dress and facial expression. My teacher also used to say that you should take the great medicines diligently if you wished to enjoy Fullness of Life, and that you should use metal solutions and a multiplication of your person if you wished to communicate with the gods. By multiplying the body, the threeHun and the sevenPo are automatically seen within the body, and in addition it becomes possible to meet and visit the powers of heaven and the deities of earth and to have all the gods of the mountains and rivers in one's service. (18)[60]
The DaoistShangqing School has several meditation techniques for visualizing thehun andpo. In ShangqingNeidan "Internal Alchemy", Baldrian-Hussein says,
thepo plays a particularly somber role as it represents the passions that dominate thehun. This causes the vital force to decay, especially during sexual activity, and eventually leads to death. The inner alchemical practice seeks to concentrate the vital forces within the body by reversing the respective roles ofhun andpo, so that thehun (Yang) controls thepo (Yin).[61]
The number of human "souls" has been a long-standing source of controversy among Chinese religious traditions. Stevan Harrell concludes, "Almost every number from one to a dozen has at one time or another been proposed as the correct one."[62] The most commonly believed numbers of "souls" in a person are one, two, three, and ten.
One "soul" orlinghun靈魂 is the simplest idea. Harrell gives a fieldwork example.
When rural Taiwanese perform ancestral sacrifices at home, they naturally think of theling-hun in the tablet; when they take offerings to the cemetery, they think of it in the grave; and when they go on shamanistic trips, they think of it in theyin world. Because the contexts are separate, there is little conflict and little need for abstract reasoning about a nonexistent problem.[63]
Two "souls" is a common folk belief, and reinforced byyin-yang theory. These paired souls can be calledhun andpo,hunpo andshen, orlinghun andshen.
Three "souls" comes from widespread beliefs that the soul of a dead person can exist in the multiple locations. The missionaryJustus Doolittle recorded that Chinese people inFuzhou
Believe each person hasthree distinct souls while living. These souls separate at the death of the adult to whom they belong. One resides in the ancestral tablet erected to his memory, if the head of a family; another lurks in the coffin or the grave, and the third departs to the infernal regions to undergo its merited punishment.[64]
Ten "souls" ofsanhunqipo三魂七魄 "threehun and sevenpo" is not only Daoist; "Some authorities would maintain that the three-seven "soul" is basic to all Chinese religion".[65] During the Later Han period, Daoists fixed the number ofhun souls at three and the number ofpo souls at seven. A newly deceased person may return (回魂) to his home at some nights, sometimes one week (頭七) after his death and the seven po would disappear one by one every 7 days after death. According to Needham and Lu, "It is a little difficult to ascertain the reason for this, since fives and sixes (if they corresponded to the viscera) would have rather been expected."[26] Threehun may stand for thesangang三綱 "three principles of social order: relationships between ruler-subject, father-child, and husband-wife".[66] Sevenpo may stand for theqiqiao七竅 "seven apertures (in the head, eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth)" or theqiqing七情 "seven emotions (joy, anger, sorrow, fear, worry, grief, fright)" intraditional Chinese medicine.[57] Sanhunqipo also stand for other names.
Footnotes
