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Ahumid subtropical climate is a climate type located within thetemperate climate type, characterized by long, hot and humid summers, and cool to mild winters. Subtropical climates, the warmest of the temperate zone climates, normally lie on the southeast side of all continents (except Antarctica), generally betweenlatitudes 20° and 35° and are located poleward from adjacent tropical climates, and equatorward from eitherhumid continental (in North America and Asia) oroceanic climates (in other continents).[1]
Under theKöppen climate classification,Cfa andCwa climates are described as warm temperate climates when mean temperature in the coldest month is above 0 °C (32 °F) and below 18 °C (64 °F). However, some climatologists have opted to describe the most southernmost portion of the temperate zone as "humid subtropical climate". In this southernmost zone, normally the mean temperature of the coldest month is 45 F (7.6 C) or higher and has mean temperature in the hottest months above 75 F (23.8 C) ,[2] In the Köppen climate classification, this southernmost portion of the temperate zone was not defined separately.
The humid subtropical climate classification was a later revision under theTrewartha climate classification.[3] In this classification, climates are termed humid subtropical when they have at least 8 months with a mean temperature above 10 °C (50 °F). This distinction normally separates the general temperate zone from the southernmost portions of the temperate zone which have many tropical climate characteristics for a portion of the year.
While many subtropical climates tend to be located on the eastern lowlands and coastal areas of landmasses, in some cases, they extend well inland and to a higher latitude, most notably inChina and the interior southernUnited States, where they exhibit more pronounced seasonal variations and sharper contrasts between summer and winter. As such, the climate can be said to exhibit somewhat different features depending from the hotter, more mild winter coastal and coastal plain locations.
In a humid subtropical climate, summers are typically long, hot and humid. A deep current of tropical air dominates the humid subtropics at the time of high sun, and daily intense (but brief)convectivethundershowers are common. Monthly mean temperatures in winter are normally mild, however they may be cool at the northern edges of the humid subtropical zone.[4][5]
Rainfall often shows a summer peak in most humid subtropical climates, especially where there is a well developed monsoon (seasonal reversal of winds) such as inSouth Asia.[6] Most summer rainfall occurs duringthunderstorms that build up due to the intense surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle. Weaktropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans, as well as occasionaltropical cyclones often contribute to summer seasonal rainfall peaks such as occurs in theFlorida in the United States and easternAustralia. Normally, winter is a drier season in most humid subtropical climates, however, some higher latitude subtropical climates in the interior of the southern United States, also have modest precipitation in winter as well.
Under theHoldridge life zones classification, the subtropical climates have a biotemperature between the frost or critical temperature line, 16 to 18 °C (61 to 64 °F) (depending on locations in the world) and 24 °C (75 °F), and these climates are humid (or even perhumid or superhumid) when thepotential evapotranspiration (PET) ratio (= PET / Precipitation) is less than 1.[7][8] In the Holdridge classification, the humid subtropical climates of the Koppen system coincide more or less with the subtropicaland warm temperate life zones.
Cfa:C = Mild temperatef = Fully humida = Hot summer
Cwa:C = Mild temperatew = Dry wintera = Hot summer[9][10]
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In Africa, humid subtropical climates are primarily found in the southeastern part of the continent. TheCwa climate is found over a large portion of the interior of theMiddle andEastern African regions. This area includes centralAngola, northeasternZimbabwe, theNiassa,Manica andTete provinces ofMozambique, the southernCongo provinces, southwestTanzania, and the majority ofMalawi, andZambia. Some lower portions of theEthiopian Highlands also have this climate.
The climate is also found in the narrow coastal sections of southern and easternSouth Africa, primarily inKwaZulu-Natal and theEastern Cape provinces. South Africa's version of this climate features heavy oceanic influences resulting in generally milder temperatures. This is particularly evident in its winters when temperatures do not drop as low as in many other regions within the humid subtropical category.
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InEast Asia, this climate type is found in the southeastern quarter ofChina from Hong Kong north to Nanjing, the northern half ofTaiwan, southern and central Japan (Kyushu,Shikoku and half ofHonshu), and the most southern regions of Korea (the south and east Central and SouthernGyeongsang Province andJeju island). Cities near the equatorward boundary of this zone includeHong Kong andTaichung; whileSendai,Gwangju -Daegu -Gangneung of Korea andQingdao are near the northern boundary.
The influence of the strongSiberian anticyclone in East Asia brings colder winter temperatures than in the humid subtropical zones in The Americas, South Asia, and Australia. The 0 °C (32 °F) isotherm reaches as far south as the valleys of theYellow andWei rivers, roughlylatitude 34° N. AtHainan Island and in Taiwan, the climate transitions from subtropical into tropical. In most of this region, the winter monsoon is very well developed, as such eastern Asian humid subtropical zones have a strong winter dry season and heavy summer rainfall.
Only in inland areas below the Yangtze River and coastal areas between approximately theHuai River and the beginning of the coast ofGuangdong is there sufficient winter rainfall to produce aCfa climate; even in these areas, rainfall andstreamflow display a highly pronounced summer peak, unlike other regions of this climate type.Drought can be severe and often catastrophic to agriculture in theCwa zone.
The only area where winter precipitation equals or even exceeds the summer rain is around theSan'in region at the western coast of Japan, which during winter is on the windward side of the westerlies. The winter precipitation in these regions is usually produced by low-pressure systems off the east coast that develop in the onshore flow from the Siberian high. Summer rainfall comes from the East Asian Monsoon and from frequenttyphoons. Annual rainfall is generally over 1,000 millimetres (39 in), and in areas below the Himalayas can be much higher still.
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Humid subtropical climates can also be found in theIndian subcontinent, predominantly in the northern regions. However, thehumid subtropical climates exhibited here typically differ markedly from those inEast Asia (and, for that matter, much of the globe). Winters (December-February) are typically cool to mild (sometimes reaching 0 °C (32 °F),[13][14] and ranging from humid and foggy in December to dry in February. These winters are followed by a mild spring (March-April), often accompanied byhail in thenorthwestern regions. Summers tend to be relatively longer and very hot, starting from mid-April and peaking in June, with high temperatures often exceeding 40 °C (104 °F). Summers usually begin dry, complete withdust storms, traits typically associated witharid orsemi-arid climates, before eventually transforming into a more humid and stormy June. This is followed by the cooler but still hot and extremely humidmonsoon season (July-September), where the region experiences heavy rains almost daily, with humidity usually above 90%. The autumn season (October-November), which immediately follows the monsoon and precedes winter, usually experiences a pleasant climate. Cities such asNew Delhi,Dehradun,Lucknow,Kanpur andChandigarh, among others, exhibit this atypical version of the climate in India. In Pakistan, the cities ofIslamabad,Sialkot,Gujranwala andRawalpindi, among others, feature this weather pattern.Lahore overlaps between being humid subtropical andsemi-arid. The annual precipitation inPeshawar is slightly less than required for this classification.
InBangladesh, humid subtropical climates are commonly present in the northern half (north ofDhaka). Cities likeRajshahi,Rangpur,Saidpur andDinajpur in thenorthern region feature the monsoon variant (Cwa), where rainfall peaks at the monsoon season. Closely resembling the climate patterns of the neighboringIndo-Gangetic Plains, this region shows a distinct three-season pattern: a relatively dry and very hot summer (March-May), extremely wet, coolermonsoon season (June-September), and mild, foggy winter (December-February), with a post-monsoon/autumn transition season (October-November)
Humid subtropical climates can also be found inNepal. However, the Nepalese version of the climate generally does not feature the extreme hot spells that are commonplace for many other South Asian locations with this climate. In Nepal cities such asKathmandu,Pokhara,Butwal,Birgunj andBiratnagar feature this iteration of the climate.
In South Asia, humid subtropical climates generally border oncontinental climates as altitude increases, or on aMediterranean climate in western areas of Pakistan and northwestern India (e.g.Peshawar in northwestern Pakistan orSrinagar in theKashmir Valley in India, where the primary precipitation peak occurs in March, not July or August). Further east, in highland areas with lengthier monsoons such as Nepal, seasonal temperature variation is lower than in the lowlands. Further west, moving closer to theBagar andGreat Indian Desert, the climate begins to shift towards ahot semi-arid climate.
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InSoutheast Asia, about 90% of the region has atropical climate; but humid subtropical climates can also be seen here, such as inNorthern Vietnam (includingHanoi).
Southeast Asian locations with these climates can feature cool temperatures, with lows reaching 10 °C (50 °F) during the months of December, January, and February. Unlike a good portion of East Asian locations with this climate however, most of Southeast Asia seldom experiences snowfall. These areas tend to feature hot and wet summers and cool and drywinters, with mean temperatures varying between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F) in summer.
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Although humid subtropical climates in Asia are mostly confined to the southeastern quarter of the continent, there are two narrow areas along the coast of theCaspian Sea andBlack Sea with humid subtropical climates. Summers in these locations are cooler than typical humid subtropical climates and snowfall in winter is relatively common, but is usually of a short duration.
InWestern Asia, the climate is prevalent in theGilan,Māzandarān andGolestan Provinces ofIran, in parts of theCaucasus, inAzerbaijan and inGeorgia wedged between theCaspian andBlack seas and coastal (Black Sea) Turkey, albeit having more oceanic influence.
Annual rainfall ranges from around 600 millimetres (24 in) atGorgan to over 1,830 millimetres (72 in) atBandar-e Anzali, and is heavy throughout the year, with a maximum in October or November when Bandar-e Anzali can average 330 millimetres (13 in) in one month. Temperatures are generally moderate in comparison with other parts of Western Asia. During winter, the coastal areas can receive snowfall, which is usually of a short duration.
InRasht, the average temperature in July and August is around 25 °C (77 °F) but with near-saturationhumidity, whilst in January and February it is around 7 °C (45 °F). The heavy, evenly distributed rainfall extends north into the Caspian coastal strip ofAzerbaijan up to its northern border but this climate in Azerbaijan is, however, aCfb/Cfa (Oceanic climate/Humid subtropical climate) borderline case.[17]
WesternGeorgia (Batumi andKutaisi) in theKolkheti Lowland and the northeast coast ofTurkey (Giresun), have a climate similar to that of Gilan and Mazandaran in Iran and very similar to that of southeastern and northern Azerbaijan. Temperatures range from 22 °C (72 °F) in summer to 5 °C (41 °F) in winter and rainfall is even heavier than in Caspian Iran, up to 2,300 millimetres (91 in) per year inHopa (Turkey). These climates are aCfb/Cfa (Oceanic climate/Humid subtropical climate) borderline case.
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In North America, humid subtropical climates are found in the American Gulf and lower East Coast states, includingAlabama,Arkansas,Florida,Georgia,Louisiana,Mississippi,North Carolina,Oklahoma,South Carolina,Tennessee, andTexas. On the Florida peninsula, the humid subtropical climate gives way to thetropical climate ofSouth Florida and theFlorida Keys.
Under Köppen's climate classification, this zone includes locations further north, primarilyVirginia,Kentucky, the lower elevations ofWest Virginia,Maryland,Delaware,Washington, D.C., southeastern and the lower elevations of southwesternPennsylvania, central and southern portions ofNew Jersey, andDownstate New York. It can also be found in the lower Midwest, primarily in the central and southern portions ofKansas andMissouri and the southern portions ofIllinois,Indiana andOhio.
InMexico, there are small areas ofCfa andCwa climates. The climate can be found in small areas scattered around the northeastern part of the country, in proximity to theGulf of Mexico. Other areas where the climate can be found is in the high elevations of Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre Oriental. Despite being located at higher elevations, these locations have summers that are too warm to qualify as a subtropical highland climate.Guadalajara's climate is a major example of this.
Outside of isolated sections of Mexico, the southernmost limits of this climate zone inNorth America lie just north of South Florida and around southern coastal Texas. Cities at the southernmost limits, such as Tampa and Orlando and along the Texas coast aroundCorpus Christi down towardBrownsville generally feature warm weather year-round and minimal temperature differences between seasons. In contrast, cities at the northernmost limits of the climate zone such as New York, Philadelphia andLouisville feature hot, humid summers and chilly winters. These areas have average winter temperatures at the coldest limit of climates classed as humid subtropical. The climate can also be found in small areas scattered around the northeastern part Mexico, in proximity to theGulf of Mexico.
Snowfall varies greatly in this climate zone. In locations at the southern limits of this zone and areas around theGulf Coast, cities such asOrlando,Tampa,Houston,New Orleans, andSavannah rarely see snowfall, which occurs, at most, a few times per generation. In cities farther north or inland, such asAtlanta,Charlotte,Dallas,Memphis,Nashville, andRaleigh, snow only occasionally falls and is usually three inches or less. However, for the majority of the winter here, temperatures remain above or well above freezing.[20][21][22] At the northernmost limits of this zone, cities such asNew York City,Philadelphia,Baltimore,Washington, D.C., andLouisville typically see snowfall during the winter, with occasional heavy snowstorms. Still, average temperatures during a typical winter hover just above freezing at these locations.[21][23][24][25]
Precipitation is plentiful in North America's humid subtropical climate zone – but with significant variations in terms of wettest/driest months and seasons. Locations on the northern edge of the zone such as theJersey Shore, andNorthern Kentucky typically features relatively consistent precipitation patterns throughout the course of the year. In contrast, much of theinterior Southern United States, including Tennessee, sections of Kentucky, and the northern halves of Mississippi and Alabama, tends to have a winter or spring (not summer) precipitation maximum. Closer to theAtlantic and Gulf coasts, there is a summer maximum, with July or August usually the wettest month – such as inJacksonville,Charleston,Mobile, New Orleans, and Virginia Beach. A semblance of a monsoon pattern (dry winters/wet summers) is evident along the Atlantic coast from theChesapeake Bay region and theOuter Banks south to Florida. The seasonal monsoon is much stronger on the Florida peninsula, as most locations in Florida have dry winters and wet summers.
In addition, areas in Texas that are slightly inland from the Gulf of Mexico, such as Austin and San Antonio that border thesemi-arid climate zone, generally see a peak of precipitation in May, a drought-like nadir in mid-summer and a secondary, if not equal, precipitation peak in September or October. Areas further south alongSouth Texas' Gulf Coast (Brownsville), which closely bordertropical climate classification, typically have a strong September precipitation maximum, and a tendency toward dry conditions in winter with rain increasing in spring, with December or January often the driest months.
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InCentral America there are small areas ofCfa andCwa climates. Areas where the climate can be found is in the high elevations of Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre Oriental. Despite being located at higher elevations, these locations have summers that are too warm to qualify as a subtropical highland climate. These highland areas feature summer temperatures that are warm enough to fall outside the subtropical highland climate category Cw.
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Humid subtropical climates are found in a sizable portion of southeastern South America. The climate extends over a few states of southern Brazil, includingParaná, into sections ofParaguay, all ofUruguay and central Argentina (Pampas region). Major cities such asSão Paulo,Asunción,Buenos Aires,Porto Alegre andMontevideo have a humid subtropical climate, generally in the form of hot and humid summers, and mild to cool winters. These areas, which include thePampas, generally feature aCfa climate categorization. At38°S, the Argentine city ofBahía Blanca lies on the southern limit of the humid subtropical zone.
TheCwa climate occurs in parts of tropical highlands ofMinas Gerais,Rio de Janeiro,Mato Grosso do Sul and near theAndean highland in northwesternArgentina. These highland areas feature summer temperatures that are warm enough to fall outside thesubtropical highland climate category.
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The humid subtropical climate dominates a few major cities in Australia, namelySydney,Brisbane, and theGold Coast. This climate zone predominantly lies in eastern Australia, which begins from the coastal strip ofMackay, Queensland and stretches down the coast to just south of Sydney, where it transitions into the cooler, oceanic climates.[27][28]
FromNewcastle, approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) northeast of Sydney, theCfa zone would extend to inlandNew South Wales, excluding the highland regions (which have an oceanic climate), stretching towardsDubbo to the northwest andWagga Wagga to the south, ending at theNew South Wales/Victoria border (Albury-Wodonga).[29] To note, these places would have characteristics of the semi-arid and/or Mediterranean climates. Furthermore, the inlandCfa climates generally have drier summers, or at least summers with low humidity.[30]
Extreme heat is more often experienced in Sydney than in other large cities in Australia'sCfa zone, especially in thewestern suburbs, where highs over 40 °C (104 °F) are not uncommon. Frost is prevalent in the more inland areas of Sydney, such asRichmond. Average annual rainfall in the Sydney region ranges between 800 and 1,200 millimetres (31 and 47 in).[31]
There is usually a distinct summer rainfall maximum that becomes more pronounced moving northwards. In Brisbane, the wettest month (February) receives five times the rainfall of the driest month (September). Temperatures are very warm to hot but are not excessive: the average maximum in February is usually around 29 °C (84 °F) and in July around 21 °C (70 °F). Frosts are extremely rare except at higher elevations, but temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F) are not common on the coast.
North of theCfa climate zone there is a zone centred uponRockhampton which extends north to the KöppenCwa classified climate zone of the Atherton Tablelands region. This region has a very pronounced dry winter period, with often negligible rainfall between June and October. Winter temperatures generally only fall slightly below 18 °C (64 °F), which would classify the region as a tropical savanna, orAw, climate.
Annual rainfall within Australia's humid subtropical climate zone can reach as high as 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in coastal locations and is generally 1,000 millimetres (39 in) or above. The most intense 2–3 day rainfall periods that occur in this coastal zone however are the outcome ofeast coast lows forming to the north of alarge high pressure system. There can be great variation in rainfall amounts from year to year as a result of these systems. As an example atLismore which lies in the centre of this zone, the annual rainfall can range from less than 550 millimetres (22 in) in 1915 to more than 2,780 millimetres (109 in) in 1950.[32]
The climate ofLord Howe Island andNorfolk Island to the east of Australia is alsoCfa, as is the climate of theKermadec Islands to the northeast ofNew Zealand. Strong Pacific influences on these islands prevent extreme heat despite very mild winters.
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As the continent does not have a large ocean to its east as the case in many other continents within the climate zone, humid subtropical climates in Europe are limited to relatively small areas on the margins of the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins.Cfa zones are generally transitional between theMediterranean climate zones along the coast and oceanic and humid continental zones to the west and north where rainfall in the warmer months is too high for a Mediterranean classification, while temperatures (either in the summer and/or winter) are too warm to qualify as oceanic or humid continental. Summer humidity is generally not as high here as in other continents within this climatic zone.
ThePo Valley, inNorthern Italy, including major cities such asMilan,Turin,Bologna, andVerona, has a humid subtropical climate, featuring hot, humid summers with frequent thunderstorms; winters are foggy, damp and chilly, with sudden bursts of frost. Places along the shores ofLake Maggiore,Lake Lugano,Lake Como (Como andVerbania inItaly andLugano andLocarno inSwitzerland) have a humid subtropical climate with a distinctively high amount of rainfall during summer. In France, the climate is found in parts of theGaronne Valley (city ofToulouse) and in theRhône Valley, including the cities ofLyon andValence. Due to climate change, some cities on the Balkan peninsula and in thePannonian Basin such asBelgrade,Novi Sad,Niš andBudapest are now just warm enough to be categorized as such. At48°N, the urban core ofVienna, inAustria andBratislava, inSlovakia, lie on the northern limit of the humid subtropical zone.
The coastal areas in the northern half of theAdriatic Sea also fall within this climate zone. The cities includeTrieste,Venice, andRimini inItaly,Rijeka andSplit inCroatia,Koper inSlovenia andKotor inMontenegro. Other Southern European areas in theCfa zone include the central valleys and coast ofCatalonia ofGirona andBarcelona inSpain, some on the north-east of Spain (Huesca),West Macedonia inGreece (Kozani).
Along theBlack Sea coast ofBulgaria (Varna), coast ofRomania (Constanța andMamaia),Sochi, Russia andCrimea, have summers too warm (>22 °C (72 °F) mean temperature in the warmest month) to qualify as oceanic, no freezing month, and enough summer precipitation and sometimes humid conditions, where they would be fit to be classed underCfa, though they closely border thehumid continental zone due to colder winters. All these areas are subject to occasional, in some cases repeated snowfalls and freezes during winter.
InCentral Europe, a small area of humid subtropical climates are located in transitional areas between the oceanic and continental climates in areas where higher summer temperatures do not quite qualify it for inclusion in the Oceanic climate schema and mild winters do not allow their inclusion into continental climates. Average summer temperatures in areas ofEurope with this climate are generally not as hot as most other subtropical zones around the world.[1] Urban examples includeBratislava,Budapest, and theInnere Stadt ofVienna.
In theAzores, some islands have this climate, with very mild and rainy winters (>13 °C (55 °F)) and no snowfall, warm summers (>21 °C (70 °F)) but with no dry season during the warmest period, which means that they can neither be classified asoceanic, nor asMediterranean, only as humid subtropical, as withCorvo Island.
In many other climate classification systems outside of the Köppen, most of these locations would not be included in the humid subtropical grouping. The higher summer precipitation and poleward flow of tropical air-masses in summer are not present in Europe as they are in eastern Australia or the southern United States. Many of these locations in Central and Southern Europe are consideredoceanic by Trewartha's classification.
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