Hoysala kingdom | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 950–1346 | |||||||||
 Greatest extent of the Hoysala kingdom, c.1050- c.1355 | |||||||||
| Capital |
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| Common languages | Kannada Sanskrit | ||||||||
| Religion | Jainism Hinduism | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| King | |||||||||
• 950-960 | Arekalla | ||||||||
• 1343–1346 | Veera Ballala IV | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Established | 950 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1346 | ||||||||
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| Part ofa series on the |
| History of Karnataka |
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Categories |
The Hoysala Kingdom was a prominent South Indian dynasty that ruled most of what is nowKarnataka, as well as parts ofTamil Nadu and southwesternTelangana, between the 11th and 14th centuries CE.[1] The capital was initially located at Belur and was later moved to Halebidu.[2]
The origins of the Hoysala dynasty are traced to the Malnad region of Karnataka. Initially, the Hoysalas served as feudatories of the WesternChalukyas of Kalyana. The dynasty gained prominence under KingVishnuvardhana particularly after the defeat of theCholas in the Battle of Talakad, which consolidated Hoysala authority in the Deccan.[3] Taking advantage of the conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Kalachuris of Kalyani in the 12th century, the Hoysalas expanded their domain, eventually controlling large parts of Karnataka, and parts of northwestern Tamil Nadu and western Andhra Pradesh (now Telangana).[4]
The Hoysala period was a significant era for the development of South Indian art, architecture, and literature. Over 100 temples from this period survive, showcasing intricate Hoysala architecture.[5] Well-known temples which exhibit what the historian Sailendra Sen has called "an amazing display of sculptural exuberance" include theChennakeshava Temple in Belur, theHoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, and theChennakesava Temple in Somanathapura.[6] These three temples were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2023.[7] The Hoysala rulers also patronised the fine arts encouraging the literature to flourish inKannada and Sanskrit with notable contributions made by Jain and Brahmin poets.[8]
Early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of theYadu by referring to the Yadavavamsa (or clan) as the "Hoysalavamsa". But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas ofNorth India.[9]
Kannada folklore tells a legend of a young man, Sala (also known as Poysala), who saved hisJainguru Sudatta by killing a tiger (sometimes described as a lion) that they encountered whilst in a forest, at "Sosevur" located at present-dayAngadi Village in Chikkamagaluru district, the original home of the Hoysala family.[10][11] The wordstrike translates to "hoy" inOld Kannada, hence the name 'Hoy-sala'.[12] The legend purporting to show how Sala became the founder of the Hoysala dynasty is shown in theBelur inscription of the Hoysala kingVishnuvardhana, datedc. 1117,[13] but owing to several inconsistencies in the story it remains in the realm of folklore.[14] Their inscriptions refer to the founders of the Hoysala dynasty asMaleparolganda ('Lord of the hills'), which makes their original home theMalenadu region of modern southern Karnataka.[15] Vishnuvardhana achieved a victory over theCholas atTalakadu in 1116,[16] and the legend may have arisen or gained popularity after this event, as the Hoysala emblem depicts Sala fighting a tiger, the tiger being the emblem of the Cholas.[17]
The earliest record of the Hoysala family dates to about c. 950 CE, namingArekalla as a local chieftain. He was succeeded by Maruga, Nripa Kama I (c. 976 CE), and Munda (1006–1026 CE).Nripa Kama I is described with the titlePermanadi indicating an early alliance with theWestern Ganga dynasty.[18] The Hoysalas emerged from the Malnad region in the Western Ghats as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, gradually expanding their territory during the conflict between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and eventually gaining independence as the Chalukya power declined.[19]
During the reign of King Vishnuvardhana (r. c. 1108–1152 CE), the Hoysalas fought decisive campaigns against the Cholas. Chola incursions into Gangavadi reportedly included the destruction of Jain Basadis around Talakadu. Vishnuvardhana’s generalGanggaraj led the counter-offensive defeating theChola general Adiyamma near Talakadu and recovering lost territory. After this victory Vishnuvardhana earned the title "Talakadugonda" ("Conqueror of Talakadu"), while inscriptions highlighted Gangaraja’s leading role in these campaigns.[20]
King Vishnuvardhana fought the Western (Kalyani) Chalukyas in Nolambavadi asserting his independence from them. In a secondChola campaign, the Hoysala armies chased the Chola forces to Vellore which was deep inside Tamil territory. For these victories, Vishnuvardhana made significant land grants to his general atKambadahalli which would become an important center for Jainism.[21] These campaigns weakened Chola influence and consolidated Hoysala power in the Deccan, and historians credit the successes of King Vishnuvardhana as pivotal in establishing Hoysala independence and the military leadership of his general Gangaraj as a major factor in these victories.[22][23]
Vishnuvardhana's grandsonVeera Ballala II further strengthened the kingdom and expanded its influence. He declared war against theYadavas and defeated theKadambas. He declared independence in 1193.[24] During the establishment of the Hoysala Kingdom, theDeccan Plateau saw a four-way struggle for hegemony between four dynasties: the Hoysalas, thePandyans, theKakatiyas, and theSeunas.[25] In 1217, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya after they invaded the Chola Kingdom, helped to restore the Chola king on his throne and assumed the titleDakshina Chakravarthi ("Emperor of the south").[24][26]
The Hoysalas extended their foothold in modern-dayTamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam nearSrirangam a provincial capital and taking control over the southern Deccan region.[27]Vira Narasimha II's sonVira Someshwara earned thehonorificMamadi (uncle) from the Pandyas and Cholas.[28] From 1220 to 1245 the dynasty's hegemony increased southwards to cover both the Chola and Pandya Kingdoms.[28] Toward the end of the 13th century,Veera Ballala III recaptured territory in the Tamil country which had been lost during a Pandya uprising, thus uniting the northern and southern portions of the Kingdom.[29]
In the early part of the 14th century, major political changes took place in the Deccan region during a period when large areas of northern India were under Muslim rule.Alauddin Khalji, the Sultan of Delhi, was determined to control southern India. In 1311 he sent his commanderMalik Kafur on an expedition to plunderDevagiri, the capital city of the Seuna Kingdom[30] By 1318 the Seuna Kingdom had been subjugated. The Hoysala capitalHalebidu was besieged and sacked twice, in1311 and 1327.[31] By 1336, the Sultan had conquered the Pandyas of Madurai, the Kakatiyas ofWarangal and the tiny Kingdom of Kampili. The Hoysalas were the only remaining Hindu Kingdom who resisted the invading armies.[32] Veera Ballala III stationed himself atTiruvannamalai and offered stiff resistance to invasions from the north and theMadurai Sultanate to the south.[33] Then, after nearly three decades of resistance, Veera Ballala III was killed at the battle of Madurai in 1343,[29] and the sovereign territories of the Hoysala Kingdom were merged with the areas administered byHarihara I in theTungabhadra River region.[34][35] This new Hindu Kingdom resisted the northern invasions and would later prosper and come to be known as theVijayanagara Empire.[36]
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The empire consisted of the valleys of three main rivers, theKrishna, the Tungabhadra, and theKaveri, whosesystems facilitated the growth of crops and generated an agricultural output that was immense.[39] The highlands (malnad regions) with itstemperate climate was suitable for raising cattle and the planting of orchards and spices.Paddy andcorn were staple crops in thetropical plains (Bailnad).[40] As agricultural land was scarce, forests, waste land and previously unfarmed land was reclaimed, and new settlements were established. Large areas of forest were cleared to bring lands under cultivation and build villages.[41] The Hoysala kings gave grants of land as rewards for service to the heads of families, who then became landlords (gavunda) to tenants who worked on the land and in the forests. Thepraja gavunda ("thegavunda of the people") had a lower status than the wealthierprabhu gavunda ("of the lord")[42]
The Hoysala administration supported itself through revenues from an agrarian economy.[40][41] Land was assessed as being wet land, dry land or garden land for the purposes of taxation, and judged according to the quality of the soil.[43] Taxes on commodities (gold, precious stones, perfumes, sandalwood, ropes, yarn, housing, hearths, shops, cattle pans, sugarcane presses) as well as produce (black pepper, betel leaves, ghee, paddy, spices, palm leaves, coconuts, sugar) are noted in village records.[44] The Hoysalas encouraged people to move to newly-built villages by means ofland grants and tax concessions.[43]
Taxes, collected in the form of cash, from trade and commerce generated considerable wealth for the Hoysala state, and enabled it to buy armaments, elephants, horses and precious goods. The state and the merchant class became interdependent, with some more prosperous merchants being known asRajasresthigal (royal merchants), officially recognised on account of their wealth. They were seen aspuramulasthamba ('the pillars of the towns').[45] The increased prosperity and prestige of some merchants encouraged them to open markets and weekly fairs,[46] with some becomingPattanaswami (town administrators), who had the authority to collect tolls on goods that entered the town.[47] Merchants engaged in minting activities, sometimes producing the coins and supplying them to the state.[47]
Tanks (large reservoirs) were created at the expense of the state.[40] The Hoysalas put resources into repairing breached tanks and brokensluices, easily damaged by heavy rainfall.[43] They collected taxes on irrigation systems, canals and wells, all of which were built and maintained at the expense of local villagers.[48] Repairs were undertaken by the landlords as well as their workers; such repairs were considered to be a duty and a pious act.[43]
Importing horses for use as general transportation and in army cavalries of Indian Kingdoms was a flourishing business on the western seaboard.[49]Song dynasty records from China mention the presence of Indian merchants in ports of South China, indicating active trade with overseas Kingdoms.[44] South India exported textiles, spices, medicinal plants, precious stones, pottery, salt made from salt pans, jewels, gold, ivory, rhino horn,ebony,aloe wood, perfumes,sandalwood,camphor and condiments to China,Dhofar,Aden, andSiraf (the port of entry to Egypt,Arabia, andPersia).[50]
In its administrative practices, the Hoysala Empire followed some of the well-established and proven methods of its predecessors covering administrative functions such as cabinet organisation and command, the structure of local governing bodies and the division of territory.[51] Several of their major feudatories wereGavundas of the peasant extraction.[52] Records show the names of many high-ranking positions reporting directly to the king. Senior ministers were calledPancha Pradhanas, ministers responsible for foreign affairs were designatedSandhivigrahi and the chief treasurer wasMahabhandari orHiranyabhandari.Dandanayakas were in charge of armies and the chief justice of the Hoysala court was theDharmadhikari.[51]
The Kingdom was divided into provinces namedNadu,Vishaya,Kampana andDesha, listed in descending order of geographical size.[53] Each province had a local governing body consisting of a minister (Mahapradhana) and a treasurer (Bhandari) that reported to the ruler of that province (Dandanayaka). Under this local ruler were officials calledHeggaddes andGavundas who hired and supervised the local farmers and labourers recruited to till the land. Subordinate ruling clans such asAlupas continued to govern their respective territories while following the policies set by the empire.[54]
An elite and well-trained force of bodyguards known asGarudas protected the members of the royal family at all times. These servants moved closely yet inconspicuously by the side of their master, their loyalty being so complete that they committed suicide after his death.[55]Hero stones (virgal) erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars. The Garuda pillar at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu was erected in honor of Kuvara Lakshma, a minister and bodyguard of King Veera Ballala II.[56][57]
King Vishnuvardhana's coins had the legends "victor at Nolambavadi" (Nolambavadigonda), "victor at Talakad" (Talakadugonda), "chief of the Malepas" (Maleparolganda), "Brave of Malepa" (malapavira) inHoysala style Kannada script.[58][59] Their gold coin was calledHonnu orGadyana and weighed 62 grains of gold.Pana orHana was a tenth of theHonnu,Haga was a fourth of thePana andVisa was fourth ofHaga. There were other coins calledBele andKani.[54]
The earliest Hoysala capital was at Sosevur (also called Sasakapura or Sosavurpattana), located at present-dayAngadi inChikkamagaluru district. At the time, it was a prominent Jain religious centre and is traditionally regarded as the original home of the Hoysala family.[60] Sosevur served as the capital from around 1026 to 1048 CE. Even after the capital was moved to Belur, Sosevur remained an important commercial, administrative, and Jain religious centre.[61]In 1048, the Hoysala capital was moved toBelur. Several factors made Belur an attractive site as a capital: first, its location on theYagachi River provided a good supply of water year-round. Second, its location in hilly terrain made it easily defended. Third, it lay on an important trade route, helping both commerce and communications. However, Belur was barely capital for a decade before it was moved again.: 88–90
The third and longest-lasting Hoysala capital was Dwarasamudra (also called Dorasamudra or Dvaravatipur), at the present-day site ofHalebid. It became capital in 1062 and remained capital until the dynasty's end. The reason for the shift is unknown, but it may have been for administrative convenience. Canals were dug connecting Dwarasamudra with Belur and bringing water from the Yagachi to Dwarasamudra. Two trade routes passed through the city, and scores of temples were built in it. The city declined in the 14th century.: 89–90
The Hoysala rulers were originally patrons ofJainism.[60] In the early period of the dynasty, Hoysala kings and ministers supported Jain institutions, temples, and scholars.[61][62] King Vishnuvardhana began his reign as a Jain when he was known as Bitti Deva and continued to patronize Jain institutions before his conversion. He granted lands to his general Ganggaraj who supported Jain temples atShravanabelagola andKambadahalli thus expanding Jain religious infrastructure in the region.[63][64]
Vishnuvardhana later Supported toVaishnavism under the influence of the philosopherRamanujacharya.[65][66] His queenShantala Devi and his Family however remained Devotees of Jainism.[67][68] She spent her later years at Shravanabelagola and, after the death of her son, took the Jain vow of "Sallekhana" (Jain ritual fasting to death) at Shivagange in 1131 CE. An inscription from 1131 CE atChandragiri Hill in Shravanabelagola records her death through "Sallekhana" in the presence of her guru Prabhachandra Siddhanta Deva, King Vishnuvardhana and her mother Machikabbe. This inscription praises her piety, details her family lineage, and mentions grants made to Jain temples.[69] Ganggaraj is also recorded as having retired to Shravanabelagola after his military career, continuing his patronage of Jain institutions.[70]
Several prominent Jain, Brahmin and Shaiva poets and scholars flourished under the Hoysalas,[71][72][73][74] and important Jain and Hindu monuments were built during this era including shrines and other structures at Shravanabelagola.[75][76]
Later Some Hoysala rulers increasingly supportedVaishnavism. Kings such as Narasimha I and Veera Ballala II are known for their patronage of major Hindu temples and monasteries. However, successors continued the family legacy of patronising Jainism.[77][78] Inscriptions suggest that kingNarasimha III worshipedParshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, and his spiritual advisor was Meghanandi Siddhanta, (a DigambarJain monk).[79] However, with the decline of the Hoysala Kingdom Jains influence began to steadily decline in the modern Karnataka region.[80][81]
Hoysala society was marked by a highly stratified social order, religious pluralism, and rich cultural development. The empire was predominantly agrarian, with villages serving as the basic unit of administration and economy. Land grants to temples, monasteries, and scholars were common, helping sustain religious institutions and local elites.[82]
Urban centers such asHalebidu,Shravanbelgola,Belur, andSomanathapura became important hubs of trade, craft production, and temple-building activity. The Hoysalas supported merchant guilds (nagaram), artisans, and sculptors, contributing to the development of the distinctive Hoysala architectural style known for its intricate ornamentation.[83] Caste divisions were significant, with Brahmins receiving patronage for education and ritual services, while other occupational groups included agriculturists, artisans, merchants, and laborers. Inscriptions reveal a degree of social mobility through state service, military merit, and religious endowments. Religiously, society was diverse, with Jainism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and local traditions coexisting. Hoysala rulers were notable patrons of Jainism, granting lands and building basadis at Shravanabelagola, Halebidu, and elsewhere throughout their domains. Later kings, particularly after Vishnuvardhana’s conversion under Ramanujacharya’s influence, also supported Vaishnavism, leading to the construction of temples such as Chennakeshava at Belur and Hoysaleswara at Halebidu.[84]
Society during this period became increasingly sophisticated. The status of women was varied. Some royal women were involved in administration, as shown in records describing Queen Umadevi’s management of Halebidu during Veera Ballala II’s military campaigns. She is also credited with suppressing rebellious feudatories.[85] Women also participated in the fine arts, with QueenShantala Devi renowned for her skill in dance and music. Shantala Devi remained a devout Jain and is said to have performed the Jain rite of Sallekhana at Shivagange.[86] This pluralistic, temple-centered society encouraged art, literature, and learning, leaving behind a legacy of sculpture, inscriptions, and Kannada literary works that flourished under royal patronage. After the 12th century, Vachana Sahitya poets and Lingayat mystics such as Akka Mahadevi also contributed to the bhakti movement.[87] Temple dancers (Devadasis) were common, often well-educated and accomplished in the arts, which gave them comparatively more freedom than other women. However, social norms remained hierarchical, with the caste system conspicuously present.[88]
Trade on the west coast brought Arabs, Jews, Persians, Europeans, Chinese, and people from the Malay Peninsula to South India. The empire’s expansion encouraged migration, introducing new cultures and skills. Towns (Pattana or Pattanam) and marketplaces (Nagara or Nagaram) served as the nuclei of urban life. Shravanabelagola, for example, developed from a religious settlement in the 7th century into an important trading center by the 12th century with the arrival of wealthy merchants. Belur also grew into a regal city with the construction of the Chennakesava Temple under Vishnuvardhana.[89] Large temples supported by royal patronage served not only religious but also social, economic, and judicial functions, employing artisans, sculptors, priests, and administrators. Temple building was a shared activity across religions and regions, with merchants and landlords financing temples to serve fiscal, political, cultural, and religious needs of agrarian communities, helping sustain local economies and social structures.[90]
The Hoysala period was marked by significant literary activity in Kannada, with notable contributions from Jain, Shaiva and Vaishnava Brahmin writers.Janna the court poet ofVeera Ballala II gained renown for hisYashodhara Charite, a classic of Kannada literature.[91]Keshiraja, the Kannada gramarian and author ofShabdamanidarpana also flourished under Hoysala patronage.[92]
Jain centers at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli, where astronomy and mathematics were taught, were important centers of learning. Jain mathematicians such asRajaditya wrote seminal works on arithmetic and geometry includingVyavaharaganita, and Mahaviracharya'sGanitasarasangraha became a standard mathematical text.[93] Inscriptions attest to Jain Saints maintaining centers for astronomical and mathematical studies under Hoysala patronage.[94] This period saw a particularly strong Jain contribution to Kannada literature. The historian R. Narasimhacharya notes that more Jains wrote inKannada during this period than in any other Dravidian language.[95]
The period also saw innovation in Kannada poetic forms. TheSangatya metre became popular in compositions, while the Shatpadi (six-line), Tripadi (three-line) metres, andRagale (lyrical blank verse) became fashionable, allowing greater variety and expressiveness in verse.[96] Jain works continued to extol the virtues of JainTirthankaras, preserving religious and ethical themes.
Brahminical writers also contributed significantly.Rudrabhatta, patronized by Chandramouli, a minister of Veera Ballala II, wroteJagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style, narrating the life of Krishna up to his battle with Banasura, drawing on the Vishnu Purana and similar traditions.[97]Harihara (also known as Harisvara), a poet patronized by King Narasimha I, wroteGirijakalyana in the Champu style, recounting the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections.[98] A native of Halebidu from a family of accountants ("Karanikas"), Harihara wrote over one hundredragales in praise of Virupaksha (a form of Shiva). Raghavanka introduced the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature with hisHarishchandra Kavya, which is considered a classic despite occasional departures from strict grammatical rules.[99]
The modern interest in the Hoysalas is due to their patronage of art and architecture rather than their military conquests. The brisk temple building throughout the Kingdom was accomplished despite constant threats from the Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north. Their architectural style, an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style,[100][101] shows distinctDravidian influences.[102] The Hoysala architecture style is described asKarnata Dravida as distinguished from the traditionalDravida,[103] and is considered an independent architectural tradition with many unique features.[104]
A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship.[105] The tower over the temple shrine (vimana) is delicately finished with intricate carvings, showing attention to the ornate and elaborately detailed rather than to a tower form and height.[106] The stellate design of the base of the shrine with its rhythmic projections and recesses is carried through the tower in an orderly succession of decorated tiers.[note 1][108] Hoysala temple sculpture replicates this emphasis on delicacy and craftsmanship in its focus on depicting feminine beauty, grace and physique.[109] The Hoysala artists achieved this with the use ofSoapstone (Chloritic schist), a soft stone as basic building and sculptural material.[110][111]
TheChennakesava Temple at Belur (1117),[112][113] theHoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu (1121),[114][115] theChennakesava Temple atSomanathapura (1279),[116][117] the temples atArasikere (1220),[118][119]Amruthapura (1196),[120][121]Belavadi (1200),[122][123]Nuggehalli (1246),[124][125]Hosaholalu (1250),[126][127]Aralaguppe (1250),[128]Korvangla (1173),[129][130]Haranhalli (1235),[16]Mosale[131] andBasaralu (1234)[132] are some of the notable examples of Hoysala art. While the temples at Belur and Halebidu are the best known because of the beauty of their sculptures, the Hoysala art finds more complete expression in the smaller and lesser known temples.[133] The outer walls of all these temples contain an intricate array of stone sculptures and horizontal friezes (decorative mouldings) that depict the Hindu epics. These depictions are generally clockwise in the traditional direction of circumambulation (pradakshina). The temple of Halebidu has been described as an outstanding example of Hindu architecture[134] and an important milestone in Indian architecture.[107] The temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somanathapura were designated asUNESCOworld heritage sites in 2023.[7]
_and_Chennakeshava_(far)_temples_at_Mosale.JPG)
_at_Keshava_Temple%2c_Somanathapura.jpg)
The Hoysala rulers strongly supported theKannada language, as seen in their inscriptions often composed in polished, poetic Kannada with decorative floral designs in the margins.[135] According to historian Sheldon Pollock, the Hoysala era marked the near-complete displacement of Sanskrit in favor of Kannada as the primary courtly and administrative language.[136]
Jain and Buddhist monasteries educated novice monks, while schools of higher learning were calledghatikas. Temples often served as local schools where learned Brahmins taught in Sanskrit. The local Kannada language, however, was widely used in the devotional movements that emphasized an intimate experience of the divine. Literary works were written on palm leaves bound together. While earlier centuries had seen Jain works dominateKannada literature, the Hoysala period also witnessed the rise of Hindu and early Brahminical works.[137]
Sanskrit continued to be used for poetry, grammar, lexicons, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries, prose fiction, and drama.[138] Inscriptions on stone (shilashasana) and copper plates (tamarashasana) were mostly in Kannada, though some were in Sanskrit or bilingual. Typically, the titles, genealogies, origin myths, and benedictions appeared in Sanskrit, while the terms of grants—including land boundaries, participation of local authorities, rights and obligations, taxes, and witnesses—were in Kannada to ensure clarity for local communities.[139]
| Regnal names | Reign |
|---|---|
| Sala (Hoysala Dynasty) | |
| Arekalla | 950-960 |
| Maruga | 960-976 |
| Nripa Kama I | 976-1006 |
| Munda (Hoysala) | 1006-1026 |
| Nripa Kama II | 1026–1047 |
| Vinayaditya | 1047–1098 |
| Ereyanga | 1098–1102 |
| Veera Ballala I | 1102–1108 |
| Vishnuvardhana | 1108–1152 |
| Narasimha I | 1152–1173 |
| Veera Ballala II | 1173–1220 |
| Narasimha II | 1220–1234 |
| Someshwara | 1234–1263 |
| Narasimha III | 1263–1292 |
| Veera Ballala III | 1292–1342/43 |
| Veera Ballala IV | 1342/43-1346 |
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| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
