Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen majorcommercial success, influenced society, and generated popularculture icons.
The bookThe Film Experience: An Introduction (2021) defines the horror film as a genre with origins in Gothic literature that seeks to frighten the viewer. The authors highlight the fundamental elements of the horror film as "characters with physical, psychological, or spiritual deformities"; "narratives built on suspense, surprise, and shock"; and "visual compositions that move between the dread of not seeing and the horror of seeing".[2]
Alternatively, The Dictionary of Film Studies (2012) defines the horror film as representing "disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses offear,terror,disgust, shock,suspense, and (of course) horror from their viewers."[3] In his chapter "The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s" from the bookHollywood from Vietnam to Reagan (2002), film criticRobin Wood declared that the commonality between horror films is that “normality is threatened by the monster.”[4] This idea was further expanded on byNoël Carroll in his bookThe Philosophy of Horror, or Paradoxes of the Heart (1990); he noted that "repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity."[4]
Before the release ofDracula (1931), as historianGary D. Rhodes explained, the ideas and terminology of horror films did not yet exist as a codifiedgenre, although critics had used the termhorror to describe films in reviews prior toDracula's release.[5]Horror was a term used with a variety of meanings. In 1913, the magazineMoving Picture World definedhorrors as showcasing "striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards".[6] Some titles directly suggested horror, such asThe Hand of Horror (1914), a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.[6] During the silent era, the termhorror was used to describe everything from battle scenes in war films to stories of drug addiction.[7] Rhodes concluded that the termhorror film (orhorror movie) was not used in early cinema.[8]
Themystery film genre was then in vogue, and early information commonly promotedDracula as a mystery film, despite thenovel, theplay, and the film relying on thesupernatural.[9]Kim Newman discussed the genre inBritish Film Institute's bookCompanion to Horror, where he noted that horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but after that decade, “the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narrative patterns”.[10] In the 1940s, the horror film was viewed in different terms. CriticSiegfried Kracauer includedThe Lost Weekend among films described as “terror films,” along withShadow of a Doubt (1943),The Dark Corner (1946),Gaslight (1944),Shock (1946),The Spiral Staircase (1946),The Stranger (1946), andSpellbound (1945). Two years earlier, theNew York Times described a new cycle of “horror” productions includedGaslight,The Woman in the Window (1944),Dark Waters (1944),Laura (1944), andPhantom Lady (1944).[11] Mark Jancovich wrote in the bookThe Shifting Definitions of Genre: Essays on Labeling Films, Television Shows and Media (2008) thathorror was virtually synonymous with mystery as a generic term, not being limited to films concerned with the strange, eerie, and uncanny.[11]
Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964 (1971)) and Peter Hutchings (Approaches to Popular Film (1995)) implied that it is easier to view films ascycles rather than genres, suggesting that viewing theslasher film as a cycle would locate it in terms of several factors: the film industry's economy and production, the personnel involved in particular eras, and the manner of film marketing, distribution, and exhibition.[12]In an essay, Mark Jancovich declared that "there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre" amongfans andcritics of the genre.[13] Jancovich found that disagreements existed between audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves. Such disagreement included fans of other genres who may view a film such asAlien (1979) as belonging toscience fiction, as well as horror fans dismissing it as inauthentic for either genre.[14] Further debates exist among genre fans having personal definitions of “true” horror films: some fans embracecult figures such asFreddy Krueger of theA Nightmare on Elm Street series, while other fans disassociate themselves from characters and series and focus instead on genreauteur directors such asDario Argento, while still other fans would deem Argento's films too mainstream, preferring moreunderground films.[15] Andrew Tudor wrote in his bookMonsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie that "Genre is what we collectively believe it to be."[16]
Jacob Shelton investigated in detail the many ways that horror films manipulate audience members.[17] Shelton notes thatnegative space can draw viewers' eyes to anything in the frame—for example, a wall or the empty blackness in the shadows.[17]
Anna Powell explores how horror directors usecinematography to induce certain viewer reactions. Powell observes that lighting extremes, whether bright or dark, can prevent viewers from seeing every detail in a scene, which provokes unease. Bright lighting might also trick viewers into feeling safe.[18]
Powell also points out how distorting space and time can confuse and disorient horror film viewers.[19] To confound viewers' senses, directors might usetilted camera angles and shots in slow-motion or reverse.[20]
Powell notes that directors also use colour, through costuming, setting, andlens filters, to communicate mood and evoke certain connotations. Red, for example, might convey blood, passion, or disease.[21] Contrasting colours bring viewers’ attention to certain places in the frame.[22]
Thejump scare is a horror filmtrope where an abrupt change in image accompanied by a loud sound aims to surprise the viewer.[17] This trope can also besubverted to create tension, as audiences may feel increased unease and discomfort in anticipating jump scares.[17]
Mirrors are often used to create a sense of tension in horror films.
Mirrors are often used in horror films to create visual depth and build tension. Shelton argues that mirrors have been used so often in horror films that audiences have beenconditioned to fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.[17]Tight framing andclose-ups are also commonly used; these can build tension and induceanxiety by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is near theprotagonist.[17]
The interaction between horror films and their audiences is another significant issue discussed by Rhodes. He notes that horror films often serve as a safe space for viewers to confront and process their fears. This cathartic experience can provide psychological relief and a sense of empowerment, as viewers face and overcome their anxieties in a controlled environment. The communal experience of watching horror films in theaters or discussing them in fan communities also plays a crucial role in the genre's impact and popularity.[6]
Music is a key element of horror films. In his bookMusic in the Horror Film (2010), Lerner writes that "music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created by imagery and themes. Music helps to set the tense or chilling mood that horror movies often aim to achieve; it can even cause physiological effects that override learned reactions and behaviors.[23]Dissonance,atonality and experiments withtimbre are typical techniques used bycomposers in horror film music.[24]
Some critics have suggested that horror films can be vessels for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, supports the use of horror films to ease the process of understanding issues by making use of their visual elements.[27] The use of horror films can help audiences to understand prior historical events, for example, theVietnam War, theHolocaust, the worldwideAIDS epidemic[28] orpost-9/11 pessimism.[29]
Anxieties surrounding race and racism have historically and continuously informed the horror genre.[2] A good example is the history of thezombie apocalypse subgenre. The firstzombie horror films, such asWhite Zombie (1932), were inspired by stories brought back to Europe by colonizers, and these stories explicitly presentedAfro-Haitian religious and spiritual practices as evil and perverse.[30] The film which later revived the subgenre,Night of the Living Dead (1968), incidentally presented themes surrounding race in America by castingDuane Jones, a Black actor, as the lead.[31] Whether accidentally or actively, horror films demonstrate societal issues by who or what is chosen to incite fear, and how this choice is represented visually and narratively.
Films before the1930s, such as earlyGerman expressionist cinema andtrick films, have been retrospectively described as horror films, since the genre did not become codified until the release ofDracula (1931).Dracula was a box office success, leadingUniversal and several other American film studios to develop and popularise horror films well into the1940s. Bythe 1950s, horror was often made withscience fiction themes, and towards the end of the decade horror was a more common genre of international productions.
The1960s saw further developments, with material based on contemporary works instead of classic literature. The release of films such asPsycho,Black Sunday andNight of the Living Dead led to an increase in violence and erotic scenes within the genre. The1970s would expand on these themes with films that would delve into gorier pictures, as well as films that were near or directpornographic hybrids. Genre cycles in this era include thenatural horror film, and the rise ofslasher films which expanded in the early1980s. Towards the 1990s,postmodernism entered horror, while some of the biggest hits of the decade includedfilms from Japan such as the successfulRing (1998).
In the 21st century,streaming media popularised horror trends. These trends includedtorture porn influenced by the success ofSaw; films using a "found footage" technique; and independent productions such asGet Out,Hereditary, and theInsidious series which were box office hits.
In discussing narrative trends in horror, scholar Isabel Pinedo draws on the bookMonsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie (1989) to map the development of the Anglo-American horror genre. She points out that early synchronized sound, as well as post-war period films, present threats to social order as external, while human agency (largely male) prevails. The focus is on the monster's acts of violence and the characters' failed attempts at resistance, ending with male experts using violence or knowledge to defeat the monster and restore social order.[32][33]Pinedo presents the category of postmodern horror. She summarizes the narrative structure as indicating the prevalence of internal threats to social order by using a combination of monstrous violence and ineffectual human resistance with open endings. These open endings may be as follows: the monster triumphs as inHenry: Portrait of a Serial Killer (1990); the monster is defeated but only temporarily as inHalloween (1978); or there is an ambiguous outcome as inNight of the Living Dead (1968),The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974),The Thing (1982), andNightmare on Elm Street (1984).[32]
Horror is a malleable genre, and it can often be altered to accommodate other genres such asscience fiction, which makes some films difficult to categorize.[34]
Named after American authorH. P. Lovecraft (1890–1937), this sub-genre of horror films include themes ofcosmic dread, forbidden and dangerous knowledge, madness, non-human influences on humanity, religion and superstition, fate and inevitability, and the risks associated with scientific discoveries.
A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation. In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.[35][36] The focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.[35] The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of directorDavid Cronenberg, specifically with early films likeShivers (1975).[35][36] Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as inThe Thing (1982) andThe Fly (1986).[37]
Christmas horror is a film subgenre that emerged in the 1970s with films such asWhoever Slew Auntie Roo? (1971) andSilent Night, Bloody Night (1972),[38] which were soon followed by the influentialBlack Christmas (1974).[38][39] Defining the Christmas horror genre has been described as challenging,[40] as it has generally been regarded as a sub-genre of theslasher film.[41][42] Adam Rockoff, inRue Morgue, noted that the sub-genre sits within a trend of holiday-themed slasher films, alongside films such asMy Bloody Valentine (1981) andApril Fool's Day (1986).[42] Others take a broader view that Christmas horror is not limited to the slasher genre,[41] noting how it evolved from the English Christmas tradition of telling ghost stories.[38] Christmas in literature has historically included elements of "darkness"—fright, misery, death and decay—tracing its literary antecedents as far back as the biblical account of theMassacre of the Innocents and more recently in works such as E. T. A. Hoffmann's "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King" (1816) and Charles Dickens'A Christmas Carol (1843).[38][39] Although ghosts have largely been replaced by serial killers, Christmas horror creates an outlet through which to explore "a modern reinvention of the Christmas ghost story".[38]
Erotic horror is a subgenre of horror fiction that blends sensual and sexual imagery with horrific themes for the sake ofsexual arousal. Erotic horror has had influences on French[43] and American horror cinema. Theworks ofJean Rollin, such asLe Viol du Vampire andFascination, are considered quintessential erotic horror films, blending deeply sexual imagery with gore.[43] American cinema has also featured notable erotic horror film franchises, such asCandyman.[44] An example of a British erotic horror film series isHellraiser.[45]Alien features heavy erotic imagery, with the design of theXenomorph byH. R. Giger featuring bothphallic and vaginal imagery, intended to symbolize patriarchal guilt[46] as well as sex, rape, and pregnancy.[47]
Extreme horror is a subgenre of horror that emerged from early twentieth century theater through shocking performances from Paris, France'sThéâtre du Grand‑Guignol.[48] The transition from theater to cinema allowed transgressive acts of uncensored sex, torture, mutilation, andtaboo exploitation to reach a wider audience. Notably, the 1970s herald in extreme horror that is frequently cited as the beginning of the film subgenre includingLast House on the Left (1972),Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom (1975), andI Spit on Your Grave (1978).[49] Extreme horror film series, such asSaw (2004) andHostel (2005), have reached mainstream media with character(s) appearances in video games namelyDead by Daylight and the subject of musical lyrics for the bandIce Nine Kills.
Thefound footage horror film "technique" gives the audience afirst person view of the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after. Horror films which are framed as being made up of "found-footage" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.[54]Alexandra Heller-Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites likeYouTube in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successfulParanormal Activity (2007).[55]
In their bookGothic film, Richard J. McRoy and Richard J. Hand stated that "Gothic" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that "Gothic" as a whole was a style likefilm noir and not bound to certain cinematic elements like theWestern orscience fiction film.[56] The term "gothic" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film. Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.[57] Narratives in these films often focus on an audience's fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.[58] The genre can be applied to films as early asThe Haunted Castle (1896),Frankenstein (1910) as well as to more complex iterations such asPark Chan-wook'sStoker (2013) andJordan Peele'sGet Out (2017).[56]
The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film. This includesUniversal Pictures' horror films of the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer,Roger Corman's Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.[59] By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had theirDracula stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated byBlack Sunday.[60][61][62] In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors likeAnne Rice where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.[63] Following the release ofFrancis Ford Coppola'sBram Stoker's Dracula (1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.[64]
Also described as "eco-horror", thenatural horror film is a subgenre "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."[65][66] In 1963,Alfred Hitchcock defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity withThe Birds (1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s. Following the success ofWillard (1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films withStanley (1972) and an official sequelBen (1972).[67] Other films followed in suit such asNight of the Lepus (1972),Frogs (1972),Bug (1975),Squirm (1976) and what Muir described as the "turning point" in the genre withJaws (1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres "towards a less-fantastic route" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such asGrizzly (1976) andNight Creature (1977),Orca (1977), andJaws 2 (1978).[67][68][69] The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s suchvegetarianism,animal rights movements, and organizations such asGreenpeace.[70] FollowingJaws, sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such asMako: The Jaws of Death (1976) andGreat White (1981) to theSharknado film series.[70]James Marriott found that the genre had "lost momentum" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.[71]
Bill Gibron ofPopMatters declared a mixed definition of the psychological horror film, ranging from definitions of anything that created a sense of disquiet or apprehension to a film where an audience's mind makes up what was not directly displayed visually. Gibron concluded it as a "clouded gray area between all out splatter and a trip through a cinematic dark ride."[72]
Religious horror is a subgenre of horror film whose common themes are based on religion and focus heavily on supernatural beings, often withdemons as the main antagonists that bring a sense of threat.[73][74] Such films commonly use religious elements, including the crucifix or cross, holy water, the Bible, the rosary, the sign of the cross, the church, and prayer, which are forms of religious symbols and rituals used to depict the use of faith to defeat evil.[75]
Theslasher film is a horror subgenre which involves a killer murdering a group of people (often teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.[76] In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff wrote that these villains represented a "rogue genre" of films that are "tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic."[77] Following the financial success ofFriday the 13th (1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.[78] These films usually revolved around three properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).[79] The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.[80] The release ofScream (1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.[81] Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle withBloody Beach (2000),Nightmare (2000) andThe Record (2000).[82]
Splatter is a subgenre that depends onviolence andgore to display and accentuate a fascination with the theatricality ofmutilation and the vulnerability of the human body.[83]
Supernatural horror films, sometimes referred to asparanormal horror films, integratesupernatural elements, such as theafterlife,spirit possession and religion into the horror genre.[84] Since they often focus on undead or non-physical beings, they may create unease in viewers without a visible presence on screen. This may include characters feeling a touch or chill in the air, furniture moving on its own, mysterious sounds, or lights flickering with no apparent cause. Prominent supernatural horror films includeParanormal Activity andThe Conjuring.[85]
Suburban gothic is a subgenre ofGothic fiction, art, film and television, focused on anxieties associated with the creation ofsuburban communities, particularly in the United States and theWestern world, from the 1950s and 1960s onwards.
Teen horror is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong,anti-conformity teenage leads, appealing to young generations. This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.[89] Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions fromAmerican International Pictures (AIP) and productions ofHerman Cohen withI Was a Teenage Werewolf (1957) andI Was a Teenage Frankenstein (1957).[90] This led to later productions likeDaughter of Dr. Jekyll (1957) andFrankenstein's Daughter (1958).[90] Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.[91]Prior toScream, there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.[92] After the financial success ofScream, teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films likeI Know What You Did Last Summer (1997) and non-slasherThe Faculty (1998).[93][92] The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films likeDonnie Darko (2001) andCrazy/Beautiful (2001).[94] In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.[95]
Horror films inAsia have been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religiousfolklore, particularly beliefs inghosts or spirits.[52][96] InAsian Horror, Andy Richards writes that there is a "widespread and engrained acceptance ofsupernatural forces" in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related toanimist,pantheist andkarmic religious traditions, as inBuddhism andShintoism.[96] AlthoughChinese,Japanese,Thai andKorean horror has arguably received the most international attention,[96] horror also makes up a considerable proportion ofCambodian[97] andMalaysian cinema.[98]
Ian Olney described the horror films ofEurope were often more erotic and "just plain stranger" than their British and American counter-parts.[99] European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror)[100] draw from distinctly European cultural sources, includingsurrealism,romanticism,decadent tradition, early 20th centurypulp-literature,film serials, anderotic comics.[101] In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.[102]
Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from countries like Italy, Spain and France, and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre andgrindhouse theaters.[99] As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin, changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.[103] Several productions, such as those in Italy, were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.[104] European horror films began developing strongcult following since the late 1990s.[99]
It is unknown whenAustralia's cinema first horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging fromThe Strangler's Grip (1912) toThe Face at the Window (1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear inGuyra Ghost Mystery (1921).[105] By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.[106] It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release withDead Easy (1970) andNight of Fear (1973).The Cars That Ate Paris (1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.[105] 1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films (Ozploitation), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called thecultural cringe.[107] The greater success of genre films likeMad Max (1979),The Last Wave (1977) andPatrick (1978) led to theAustralian Film Commission to change its focus to being a more commercial operation. This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures. A new development known as the10BA tax shelter scheme was developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author ofAustralian Horror Films, suggested meant "making a profit was more important than making a good film."[107] Shelley called these films derivative of "American films and presenting generic American material".[107] These films included the horror film productions ofAntony I. Ginnane.[108] While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than five horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.[109][110] It was only after the success ofWolf Creek (2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.[109][110]
By 2005,New Zealand has produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.[111] New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews ofStuff as making "po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs."[112] Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions areStrange Behavior (1981), a co-production with Australia andDeath Warmed Up (1984) a single production.[113] Early features such asMelanie Read'sTrial Run (1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston'sMr. Wrong (1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.[114] Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films withBridge to Nowhere (1986), and the early films ofPeter Jackson who combined splatter films with comedy withBad Taste (1988) andBraindead (1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.[113] Film producerAnt Timpson had an influence curating New Zealand horror films, creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s includingThe ABCs of Death (2012),Deathgasm (2015), andHousebound (2014).[112] Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films likeWhat We Do in the Shadows (2014) withJonathan King, director ofBlack Sheep (2006) andThe Tattooist (2007) stating "I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen."[112]
After the 1931 release of an American-produced Spanish-language version ofDracula byGeorge Melford for the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme ofscience vs. religion conflict.[115] Ushered by the release ofEl vampiro, the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and Aztec mummies.[116] A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly inGermán Robles-starred vampire films) was producerAbel Salazar.[117] The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence ofCarlos Enrique Taboada as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such asHasta el viento tiene miedo (1967),El libro de piedra (1968),Más negro que la noche (1975) orVeneno para las hadas (1984).[118] Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as theRanchería setting, the colonial past or the myth ofLa Llorona (shared with other Hispanic-American nations).[119]
Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research.[120]
In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed viafunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results. It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.[121]
In another study done by John Greene & Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience theexcitation transfer process (ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members. The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film. In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence. Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified. Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.[122]
Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films.[123] The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that ofPTSD if the environment reminds them of particular scenes.[124]
A 2021 study suggested horror films that exploregrief can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.[125]
In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure toinfrasound and low-frequency noise (<500 Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).[126] Another study by Baliatsas et al. observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.[127] Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30 Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.[17]
Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience iscognitive dissonance, which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.[128] Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.[129] A study by Prete et al. identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.[130] There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.[130] Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.[130]
Skin conductance responses (SCRs), heart rate (HR), andelectromyographic (EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher fornegative emotions in what is known as the "negative bias."[131] When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.[131] The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).[131] This initial response can sometimes result in afight-or-flight response, which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers.[17]
CriticRobin Wood was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his articleReturn of the Repressed in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.[132] Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive "historic importance" intellectual views of the film genre.[132] William Paul in his bookLaughing Screaming comments that "the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres. More positively, it could be said that they are more direct. Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection. Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry."[133]
Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had "always operated under duress" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding "career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention".[134]
Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy offilm criticism and major films awards.[135][136] As of 2025, only seven horror films have been nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture, withThe Silence of the Lambs being the sole winner.[137] However, horror films have still won major awards.[138]
In the U.S., theMotion Picture Production Code which was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by theMPAA film rating system)[151] offered more freedom to the movie industry.
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