The name of the territory, firstromanised as "He-Ong-Kong" in 1780,[23] originally referred to a small inlet located betweenAberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island.Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[24] Although the source of the romanised name is unknown, it is generally believed to be an early phonetic rendering of theCantonese (orTanka Cantonese) phrasehēung góng. The name translates as "fragrant harbour" or "incense harbour".[21][22][25] "Fragrant" may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's freshwater influx from the Pearl River or to the odour from incense factories lining the coast of northernKowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export beforeVictoria Harbour was developed.[25]Sir John Davis (the second colonial governor) offered an alternative origin; Davis said that the name derived from "Hoong-keang" ("red torrent"), reflecting the colour of soil over which a waterfall on the island flowed.[26]
Earliest known human traces in what is now Hong Kong are dated by some to 35,000 and 39,000 years ago during thePaleolithic period. The claim is based on an archaeological investigation inWong Tei Tung,Sai Kung in 2003. The archaeological works revealedknappedstone tools from deposits that were dated using opticalluminescence dating.[31]
During theMiddle Neolithic period, about 6,000 years ago, the region had been widely occupied by humans.[32] Neolithic toBronze Age Hong Kong settlers were semi-coastal people. Early inhabitants are believed to beAustronesians in the Middle Neolithic period and later theYue people.[32] As hinted by the archaeological works in Sha Ha, Sai Kung, rice cultivation had been introduced sinceLate Neolithic period.[33] Bronze Age Hong Kong featured coarse pottery, hard pottery, quartz and stone jewelry, as well as small bronze implements.[32]
The earliest known European visitor wasPortuguese explorerJorge Álvares, who arrived in 1513.[39][40] Portuguese merchants established a trading post calledTamão in Hong Kong waters and began regular trade with southern China. Although the traders were expelled aftermilitary clashes in the 1520s,[41] Portuguese-Chinese trade relations werere-established by 1549. Portugal acquired apermanent lease forMacau in 1887.[42]
After theQing conquest, maritime trade was banned under theHaijin policies. From 1661 to 1683, the population of most of the area forming present day Hong Kong was cleared under theGreat Clearance, turning the region into a wasteland.[43] TheKangxi Emperor lifted the maritime trade prohibition, allowing foreigners to enter Chinese ports in 1684.[44] Qing authorities established theCanton System in 1757 to regulate trade more strictly, restricting non-Russian ships to the port ofCanton.[45] Although European demand for Chinese commodities like tea, silk, and porcelain was high, Chinese interest in European manufactured goods was insignificant, so that Chinese goods could only be bought with precious metals. To reduce the trade imbalance, the British sold large amounts of Indianopium to China. Faced with a drug crisis, Qing officials pursued ever more aggressive actions to halt the opium trade.[46]
In 1839, theDaoguang Emperor rejected proposals to legalise and tax opium and ordered imperial commissionerLin Zexu to eradicate the opium trade. The commissioner destroyed opium stockpiles and halted all foreign trade,[47] triggering a British military response and theFirst Opium War. The Qing surrendered early in the war and ceded Hong Kong Island in theConvention of Chuenpi. British forces began controlling Hong Kong shortly after the signing of the convention, from 26 January 1841.[48] However, both countries were dissatisfied and did not ratify the agreement.[49] After more than a year of further hostilities, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded to theUnited Kingdom in the 1842Treaty of Nanking.[50]
Administrative infrastructure was quickly built by early 1842, but piracy, disease, and hostile Qing policies initially prevented the government from attracting commerce. Conditions on the island improved during theTaiping Rebellion in the 1850s, when many Chinese refugees, including wealthy merchants, fled mainland turbulence and settled in the colony.[18] Further tensions between the British and Qing over the opium trade escalated into theSecond Opium War. The Qing were again defeated and forced to give upKowloon Peninsula andStonecutters Island in theConvention of Peking.[51] By the end of this war, Hong Kong had evolved from a transient colonial outpost into a majorentrepôt. Rapid economic improvement during the 1850s attracted foreign investment, as potential stakeholders became more confident in Hong Kong's future.[52]
Its population rebounded quickly after the war, as skilled Chinese migrants fled from theChinese Civil War and more refugees crossed the border when theChinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949.[61] Hong Kong became the first of theFour Asian Tiger economies to industrialise during the 1950s.[62] With a rapidly increasing population, the colonial government attempted reforms to improve infrastructure and public services. Thepublic-housing estate programme,Independent Commission Against Corruption, andMass Transit Railway were all established during the post-war decades to provide safer housing, integrity in the civil service, and more reliable transportation.[63][64]
Nevertheless, widespread public discontent resulted in multiple protests from the 1950s to 1980s, including pro-Republic of China and pro-Chinese Communist Party protests. In the1967 Hong Kong riots, pro-PRC protestors clashed with the British colonial government. As many as 51 were killed and 802 were injured in the violence, including dozens killed by theRoyal Hong Kong Police via beatings and shootings.[65]
Although the territory's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined because of rising labour and property costs, it transitioned to a service-based economy. By the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a globalfinancial centre and shipping hub.[66]
The colony faced an uncertain future as the end of the New Territories lease approached, andGovernor Murray MacLehose raised the question of Hong Kong's status withDeng Xiaoping in 1979.[67] Diplomatic negotiations with China resulted in the 1984Sino-British Joint Declaration, in which the United Kingdom agreed to the handover of the colony in 1997 and China would guarantee Hong Kong's economic and political systems for 50 years after the handover.[68] The impending handover triggered awave of mass emigration as residents feared an erosion of civil rights, the rule of law, and quality of life.[69] Over half a million people left the territory during the peak migration period, from 1987 to 1996.[70] The Legislative Council became afully elected legislature for the first time in 1995 and extensively expanded its functions and organisations throughout the last years of the colonial rule.[71] The handover of Hong Kong to China was at midnight on 1 July 1997, after 156 years of British rule.[72]
Immediately after the handover, Hong Kong was severely affected by several crises. The Hong Kong government was forced to use substantialforeign exchange reserves to maintain the Hong Kong dollar's currency peg during the1997 Asian financial crisis,[61] and the recovery from this was muted by anH5N1 avian-flu outbreak[73] and a housing surplus.[74] This was followed by the2003 SARS epidemic, during which the territory experienced its most serious economic downturn.[75]
Chinese communists portrayed the return of Hong Kong as key moment in the PRC's rise togreat power status.[76]: 51
The Hong Kong regional government and Chinese central government responded to the protests with a number of administrative measures to quell dissent. In June 2020, the Legislative Council passed theNational Anthem Ordinance, which criminalised "insults to the national anthem of China".[85] The Chinese central government meanwhile enacted theHong Kong national security law to help quell protests in the region.[86] Nine months later, in March 2021, the Chinese central government introducedamendments to Hong Kong's electoral system, which included the reduction of directly elected seats in the Legislative Council and the requirement that all candidates be vetted and approved by a Beijing-appointedCandidate Eligibility Review Committee.[87]
In May 2023, the Legislative Council also introduced legislation to reduce the number of directly elected seats in the district councils, and aDistrict Council Eligibility Review Committee was similarly established to vet candidates.[88][89][90]
Hong Kong is aspecial administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powersdevolved from thenational government.[91] The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the handover,[68] resulting in anexecutive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony.[92] Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, theBasic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution.[93] The regional government is composed of three branches:
Legislature: The unicameralLegislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power toimpeach a sitting chief executive.[98]
Judiciary: TheHong Kong Court of Final Appeal and lower courts interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law.[99] Judges are appointed by the chief executive on the advice of a recommendation commission.[100]
The Legislative Council has 90 members, each serving a four-year term. Twenty are directly elected fromgeographical constituencies, thirty-five representfunctional constituencies (FC), and forty are chosen by anelection committee consisting of representatives appointed by the Chinese central government.[104] Thirty FC councillors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special interest groups,[105] and the remaining five members are nominated from sittingdistrict council members and selected in region-widedouble direct elections.[106] All popularly elected members are chosen byproportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats usingfirst-past-the-post orinstant-runoff voting.[105]
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the2016 election.[107] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: thepro-Beijing camp (the current government), thepro-democracy camp, andlocalist groups.[108] The Chinese Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections.[109] Hong Kong is represented in theNational People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college and 203 delegates in theChinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government.[8]
Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction.[99] Its judicial system is based oncommon law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule.[110] Local courts may refer to precedents set inEnglish law and overseas jurisprudence.[111] However,mainland criminal procedure law applies to cases investigated by theOffice for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR.[112] Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland'ssocialistcivil law system.[113] Decisions made by theStanding Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process.[114] Furthermore, in circumstances where the Standing Committee declares a state of emergency in Hong Kong, the State Council may enforce national law in the region.[115]
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in itsimmigration and taxation policies. TheImmigration Department issuespassports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau,[116] and the region maintains aregulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass through border controls, regardless of nationality.[117] Mainland Chinese citizens do not haveright of abode in Hong Kong and are subject to immigration controls.[118] Public finances are handled separately from the national government; taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.[119][120]
The imposition of theHong Kong national security law by thecentral government in Beijing in June 2020 resulted in the suspension of bilateral extradition treaties by the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Finland, and Ireland.[130] The United States ended its preferential economic and trade treatment of Hong Kong in July 2020 because it was no longer able to distinguish Hong Kong as a separate entity from the People's Republic of China.[130][131] In 2024, theSafeguarding National Security Ordinance was passed by the Legislative Council to grant officials "even more powers to crack down on opposition toBeijing and the Hong Kong government" and includes penalties such as life imprisonment for political crimes such astreason andinsurrection. Critics state that this expansion "will strike a lasting blow to the partial autonomy the city had been promised by China [in theSino-British Joint Declaration]."[132]
Hong Kong's administrative divisions are divided into three levels:Areas (區域),Districts (地區), and Sub-districts (分區).[133] Hong Kong is administratively divided into three areas:Hong Kong Island,Kowloon, and theNew Territories. They are further divided into 18 districts. The area of Hong Kong Island has four districts, the area of Kowloon has five districts, and the area of the New Territories has nine districts.[133][134] Each district is represented by adistrict council. The district councils advise the government on local issues such as public facility provisioning, community programme maintenance, cultural promotion, and environmental policy.[135][136][89]
As of 2024,[update] there are a total of 470 district council seats, 88 of which are directly elected.[137] In May 2023, the government proposedreforms to the District Council electoral system which further cut the number of directly elected seats from 452 to 88, and total seats from 479 to 470. A requirement that district council candidates be vetted and approved by theDistrict Council Eligibility Review Committee was also proposed. The Legislative Council approved the reforms in July 2023.[88][89][90]
A yellow vertical protest banner which read "We demand real universal suffrage" was hung onLion Rock during the2014 Hong Kong protests
Hong Kong is governed by ahybrid regime that is not fullyrepresentative of the population.Legislative Council members elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow corporate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed apro-Beijing camp majority in the legislature since the handover. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of the Election Committee rather than directly elected.[138] Despiteuniversal suffrage being established as ultimate goals for the election of the chief executive and all members of the Legislative Council inArticles 45 and 68 of the basic law,[139] the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body.[138] The government has been repeatedly petitioned to introduce direct elections for these positions, but has not introduced these direct elections as of 2024.[140][141]
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment.[142][143] Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners.[144][145]Foreign domestic helpers, mostly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under regional law.[146] Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do not have the right of abode in the territory.[147]Sex trafficking is also an issue,[148] local, mainland Chinese, and foreign women have been trafficked for sex inbrothels, homes, and businesses in the city.[149][150]
The Joint Declaration guarantees theBasic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the handover.[68] It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.[151][152] However, in response tolarge-scale protests in 2019 and 2020, theStanding Committee of the National People's Congress passed the controversialHong Kong national security law.[153] The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safeguarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority immune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong Kong law.[112][154] The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration.[155] In October 2020, the Hong Kong Police arrested seven pro-democracy politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May. They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were detained.[156] Annual commemorations of the1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears of violating the national security law.[157] In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterallychanged Hong Kong's electoral system and established theCandidate Eligibility Review Committee, which would be tasked with screening and evaluating political candidates for their "patriotism", effectively crushing the remainder of thepro-democracy camp.[87]
Areas of urban development and vegetation are visible in this satellite image.
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of thePearl River estuary. It is surrounded by theSouth China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours theGuangdong city ofShenzhen along theSham Chun River. The territory's 1,110.18 km2 (428.64 sq mi)[158] area (2,754.97 km2[158] if the maritime area is included) consists ofHong Kong Island, theKowloon Peninsula, theNew Territories,Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km2 (14 sq mi) is water.[159] The territory's highest point isTai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.[160] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and innew towns throughout the New Territories.[161] Much of this is built onreclaimed land; 70 km2 (27 sq mi) (6% of the total land or about 25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.[162]
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland.[163][164] About 40% of the remaining land area iscountry parks and nature reserves.[165] The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species ofvascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.[166][167]
Climate
Hong Kong has ahumid subtropical climate (KöppenCwa), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of theTropic of Cancer, although closely bordering on atropical climate. Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of summer.Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Also rarely occurring arewaterspouts andtornadoes, which occurred at Hong Kong International Airport on 26 September 2020 and at Victoria Harbour on 28 September 2024.[168][169] Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasionally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy.[170] Snowfall has been extremely rare in Hong Kong; the last reported instance was onTai Mo Shan in 1975.[171] Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year.[172] Historic temperature extremes at theHong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893, record highest daily minimum temperature there was 30.1 °C (86.2 °F) on 18 August 1990 and the lowest daily maximum temperature there was 3.2 °C (37.8 °F) on 16 January 1893.[173][174][175] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) atWetland Park on 22 August 2017,[176] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) atTai Mo Shanon 24 January 2016.[177]
Climate data for Hong Kong (Hong Kong Observatory), normals 1991–2020,[h] extremes 1884–1939 and 1947–present
Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants.[194] Examples includeLui Seng Chun, theBlue House inWan Chai, and theShanghai Street shophouses inMong Kok. Mass-producedpublic-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed inmodernist style.[195]
The Hong Kong Island skyline, viewed from theVictoria Harbour waterfront
City view of Kowloon, Hong Kong Island, and the Hong Kong skyline
Death rates (No. of Deaths per 100,000 Population) by leading causes of death, based on ICD 10th Revision.[196]Red: increased compared with 2001. Deaths fromdementia increased more than 5 times from 2001 to 2021.
Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81.3 years for males and 87.2 years for females in 2022, one of the highest in the world.[206] The birth rate in 2023 was 0.751 per woman of child-bearing age.[207]Cancer,pneumonia,heart disease,cerebrovascular disease, and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death.[208] Theuniversal public healthcare system is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95% of healthcare costs are covered by the government.[209]
The city has a severe amount of income inequality,[210] which has risen since the handover, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people.[211] Although median household income steadily increased during the decade to 2021, the wage gap remained high;[212] the 90th percentile of earners receive 41% of all income.[212] The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people,[213] as well as thesecond-highest number of billionaires of any city in the world,[214] the highest number of billionaires of any city in Asia, and the largest concentration ofultra high-net-worth individuals of any city in the world.[215][216] Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity,[217] median income for the top 10% of earners is 57 times that of the bottom 10%.[218][219]
One of the world's most significant financial centres and commercial ports,[220] Hong Kong has amarket economy focused onservices, characterised bylow taxation, minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market.[221] It is the world's38th-largest economy, with anominal GDP of approximately US$407 billion.[13] Hong Kong's economy ranked at the top ofthe Heritage Foundation'seconomic freedom index between 1995 and 2021.[222][223] However, Hong Kong was removed from the index by the Heritage Foundation in 2021, with the Foundation citing a "loss of political freedom and autonomy... [making Hong Kong] almost indistinguishable in many respects from other major Chinese commercial centers like Shanghai and Beijing".[224] Hong Kong is highly developed, and ranks fourth on theUN Human Development Index.[159] TheHong Kong Stock Exchange is theseventh-largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of HK$30.4 trillion (US$3.87 trillion) as of December 2018[update].[225] Hong Kong is ranked as the 18th most innovative territory in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2024,[226] and 3rd in theGlobal Financial Centres Index.[227] The city was sometimes referred to as "Silicon Harbor" in the 1990s, a nickname derived fromSilicon Valley inCalifornia.[228]
Hong Kong is the ninth largest trading entity inexports and eighth largest inimports (2021),[229][230] trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product.[229][230] Over half of its cargo throughput consists oftransshipments (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40% of that traffic.[231] The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port[232] and the busiest airport for international cargo.[233] The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States.[159] Hong Kong is a key part of the21st Century Maritime Silk Road.[234] It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. More than 90% of Hong Kong's food is imported, including nearly all of its meat and rice.[235] Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties.[236]
Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7% of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10%.[237] Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product increased by a factor of 180, and per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87.[238][239] The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27% in 1993; it fell to less than 3% in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy.[240] Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start ofmarket liberalisation on the mainland. Since resumption ofcross-boundary train service in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed, facilitating trade between regions.[241][242] TheCloser Economic Partnership Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment.[243] A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions.[244] Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the handover. Mainland firms represent over half of theHang Seng Index value, up from 5% in 1997.[245][246]
As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. Half of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13% by 2015.[247] The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia.[247] The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region.[248] Hong Kong is a gateway forforeign direct investment in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links withthe Shanghai andShenzhen stock exchanges. The territory was the first market outside mainland China forrenminbi-denominated bonds, and is one of the largest hubs for offshorerenminbi trading.[249] In November 2020, Hong Kong's Financial Services and the Treasury Bureau proposed a new law that will restrict cryptocurrency trading to professional investors only, leaving amateur traders (93% of Hong Kong's trading population) out of the market.[250] TheHong Kong dollar, the local currency, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.[251] Due to extremely compact house sizes and the extremely highhousing density, the city has themost expensive housing market in the world.[252][253][254]
The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had littleindustrial policy and implemented almost notrade controls. Under the doctrine of "positive non-interventionism", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth.[255] While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s,[255] late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, includingexport-credit guarantees, acompulsory pension scheme, aminimum wage,anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer.[256]
Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for 5% of GDP.[190] In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK$258 billion (US$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the14th most popular destination for international tourists.[needs update] It is the most popular Chinese city for tourists, receiving over 70% more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau).[257] The city is ranked as one of themost expensive cities for expatriates.[258][259] However, since 2020, there has been a sharp decline in incoming visitors due to tight COVID-19 travel restrictions. Additionally, due to the closure of the Russian airspace in 2022, multiple airlines decided to cease their operations in Hong Kong.[260] In an attempt to attract tourists back to Hong Kong, the Hong Kong government announced plans to give away 500,000 free airline tickets in 2023.[261] Hong Kong wasthe most visited city internationally in the Asia-Pacific in 2023, with over 2 million more international visitors than its closest competitor,Bangkok.[262]
Hong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90% of the daily trips made by its residents are made with public transport, the highest percentage in the world.[263] TheOctopus card, acontactlesssmartpayment card made for Hong Kong, is widely accepted on railways, trams, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores.[264] Alternative payments such asApple Pay,AliPay,Mastercard andVisa have also been gradually introduced to public transports.[265][266][267][268][269]
Hong Kong Tramways’ tram network covers a portion of Hong Kong Island, covering fromKennedy Town toShau Kei Wan, with a branch toHappy Valley. It operates 6 routes and has had a rideship of 42,558 in 2022.[272][273] It began servicing Hong Kong since 1904.[274] Hong Kong Tramways currently holds the Guinness World Record as the "Largest double-decker tram fleet in service", certified on 30 July 2021, with a fleet of 165 double-decker trams.[275] The fleet of trams were mostly built byHong Kong Tramways.
Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong.[285] Automobiles driveon the left (unlike in mainland China), because of historical influence of the British Empire.[286] Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles.[287] More than 18,000taxicabs, easily identifiable by their bright colours and taxi lights, are licensed to carry riders in the territory.[288] Unlicensed ride-hailing services such asUber also exists in Hong Kong, with some operating with licensed taxis to legitimise their business in ride-sharing. Unlicensed drivers have been targeted by the government and taxi drivers in the past, mainly due to the lack ofthird-party insurance on passengers and taxi drivers fearing the competition from drivers of these ride-hailing services.[289][290] The government in 2024 has looked into legalising these services.[291]
TheStar Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers.[299] Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smallerkai-to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements.[300] Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available.[301]Junks, once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism.[302]The large size of the port gives Hong Kong the classification of Large-Port Metropolis.[303]
Hong Kong generates most of its electricity locally.[304] The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels, with 46% from coal and 47% from petroleum.[305] The rest is from other imports, including nuclear energy generated in mainland China.[306] Renewable sources account for a negligible amount of energy generated for the territory.[307] Small-scale wind-power sources have been developed,[304] and a small number of private homes and public buildings have installed solar panels.[308]
With few natural lakes and rivers, high population density, inaccessible groundwater sources, and extremely seasonal rainfall, the territory does not have a reliable source of freshwater. TheDong River in Guangdong supplies 70% of the city's water,[309] and the remaining demand is filled by harvesting rainwater locally.[310] Toilets in most built-up areas of the territory flush with seawater which reduces freshwater use.[309]
Broadband Internet access is widely available, with 92.6% of households connected. Connections overfibre-optic infrastructure are increasingly prevalent,[311] contributing to the high regional average connection speed of 21.9 Mbit/s (the world's fourth-fastest).[312] Mobile-phone use is ubiquitous;[313] there are almost 22 millionmobile-phone accounts registered in Hong Kong,[314] which is almost triple the territory's population.
Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid ofEast andWest. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law.[315] Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture was derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China; it was then influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century.[316][317] Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers would tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits.[318][319] Residents' sense of local identity has increased post-handover: polling in December 2022 had 32% of respondents identifying as "Hongkongers", 34.1% identifying as "Hongkongers in China" 45.9% purporting a "Mixed Identity", 20.5% identifying as "Chinese" and 11.9% identifying as "Chinese in Hong Kong".[320]
Traditional Chinese family values, includingfamily honour,filial piety, and apreference for sons, are prevalent.[321]Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual.[322] Spiritual concepts such asfeng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence tofeng shui is believed to determine the success of a business.[186]Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits,[323] and buildings often lackfloor numbers with a 4;[324] the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.[325]
Food in Hong Kong is primarily based onCantonese cuisine, despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes.[326] Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live atwet markets, and ingredients are used as quickly as possible when still fresh.[327] There are up to five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, andsiu yeh.[328]Dim sum, as part ofyum cha (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes includecongee,cha siu bao,siu yuk,egg tarts, andmango pudding. Local versions of Western food are served atcha chaan teng (Hong Kong-style cafes). Commoncha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, andHong Kong-style milk tea.[326]
The predominant language today isCantonese, avariety of Chinese originating in Guangzhou. It is spoken by 93.7% of the population, 88.2% as a first language and 5.5% as a second language.[3] Slightly over half the population (58.7%) speaksEnglish, the other official language;[2] 4.6% are native speakers, and 54.1% speak English as a second language.[3]Code-switching, mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population.[329] Post-handover governments have promotedMandarin, which is currently about as prevalent as English; 54.2% of the population speak Mandarin, with 2.3% native speakers and 51.9% as a second language.[3]Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing, rather than thesimplified characters used in themainland.[330]
Before theFirst Opium War, Hong Kong did not have significantCantonese-speaking populations. Instead, the majority of people spokeHakka varieties, though large areas withWaitaunese andTanka speakers can be found in the northern New Territories and southern coastal areas respectively.Hong Kong Hakka is a variety of Neo-Hakka, and belongs to theMei-Hui Hakka [zh] subbranch ofYuetai Hakka [zh], making it closely related toMoiyenese.[331] Waitaunese is a variety that is closely related to theYue Chinese varieties spoken inBao'an andDongguan, and was the primary language of theFive Great Clans of the New Territories, brought into Hong Kong during theSong dynasty fromJiangxi.[332] Some of the native Yue Chinese varieties were noticeably Hakka-influenced.[333] Smaller communities ofHoklo speakers also existed, and many villages were multicultural.[332]
Statue of Bruce Lee on theAvenue of Stars, a tribute to the city's film industry
Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade.[335] By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such asThe World of Suzie Wong.[336] WhenBruce Lee'sThe Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such asA Better Tomorrow,As Tears Go By, andZu Warriors from the Magic Mountain expanded global interest beyondmartial arts films; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular.[337]
Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such asFarewell My Concubine,To Live, andChungking Express. The city's martial arts film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors.Jackie Chan,Donnie Yen,Jet Li,Chow Yun-fat, andMichelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. Hong Kong films have also grown popular in oversea markets such as Japan, South Korea, and Southeast Asia, earning the city the moniker "Hollywood of the East".[338] At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The number of films produced annually has declined to about 60 in 2017.[339]
Leslie Cheung (left) is considered a pioneering Cantopop artist, andAndy Lau has been an icon of Hong Kong music and film for several decades as a member of the Four Heavenly Kings.
Cantopop is a genre of Cantonese popular music which emerged in Hong Kong during the 1970s. Evolving from Shanghai-styleshidaiqu, it is also influenced byCantonese opera and Western pop.[340] Local media featured songs by artists such asSam Hui,Anita Mui,Leslie Cheung, andAlan Tam; during the 1980s, exported films and shows exposed Cantopop to a global audience.[341] The genre's popularity peaked in the 1990s, when theFour Heavenly Kings dominated Asian record charts.[342] Despite a general decline since late in the decade,[343] Cantopop remains dominant in Hong Kong; contemporary artists such asEason Chan,Joey Yung, andTwins are popular in and beyond the territory.[344]
Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education.[345] The publicly fundedHong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. TheHong Kong Chinese Orchestra, composed ofclassical Chinese instruments, is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community.[346]
Hong Kong has never had a separate national anthem to the country that controlled it; its current official national anthem is therefore that of the People's Republic of China,March of the Volunteers. The songGlory to Hong Kong has been used byprotestors as an unofficial anthem of the city.[347][348]
Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annualTuen Ng Festival. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of theTourism Board's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993.[355]
TheHong Kong Jockey Club, the territory's largest taxpayer,[356] has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue.[357] Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football.[356]
Of residents aged 15 and older, 81% completed lower-secondary education, 66% graduated from an upper secondary school, 32% attended a non-degree tertiary program, and 24% earned a bachelor's degree or higher.[362]
Mandatory education has contributed to an adult literacy rate of 95.7%.[363] The literacy rate is lower than that of other developed economies because of the influx of refugees from mainland China during the post-war colonial era; much of the elderly population were not formally educated because of war and poverty.[364][365]
Comprehensive schools fall under three categories: public schools, which are government-run; subsidised schools, including government aid-and-grant schools; and private schools, often those run by religious organisations and that base admissions on academic merit. These schools are subject to the curriculum guidelines as provided by the Education Bureau. Private schools subsidised under theDirect Subsidy Scheme and international schools fall outside of this system and may elect to use differing curricula and teach using other languages.[360]
Medium of instruction
At primary and secondary school levels, the government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction"; most schools use Cantonese as themedium of instruction, with written education in both Chinese and English. Other languages being used as medium of instruction in non-international school education include English andPutonghua (Standard Mandarin Chinese). Secondary schools emphasise "bi-literacy and tri-lingualism", which has encouraged the proliferation of spoken Mandarin language education.[366]
English is the official medium of instruction and assessments for most university programmes in Hong Kong, although use of Cantonese is predominant in informal discussions among local students and professors.[367][368][369][370][371][372]
Hong Kong has twelve universities. TheUniversity of Hong Kong (HKU) was founded as the city's first institute of higher education during the early colonial period in 1911.[373] TheChinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) was established in 1963 to fill the need for a university that taught using Chinese as its primary language of instruction.[374] Along with theHong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) established in 1991, these universities are consistently ranked among the top 50 or top 100 universities worldwide.[375][376][377]
TVB City, headquarters of Hong Kong's first over-the-air television station
Most of the newspapers in Hong Kong are written in Chinese but there are also a few English-language newspapers. The major one being theSouth China Morning Post, withThe Standard serving as a business-oriented alternative. A variety of Chinese-language newspapers are published daily; the most prominent areMing Pao andOriental Daily News. Local publications are often politically affiliated, with pro-Beijing or pro-democracy sympathies. The central government has a print-media presence in the territory through the state-ownedTa Kung Pao andWen Wei Po.[384] Several international publications have regional operations in Hong Kong, includingThe Wall Street Journal,Financial Times,USA Today,Yomiuri Shimbun, andThe Nikkei.[385]
Fourfree-to-air television broadcasters operate in the territory;TVB,HKTVE,HOY andPhoenix Television air eightdigital channels.[386][387] TVB, Hong Kong's dominant television network, has an 80% viewer share.[388]Paid television services operated byPCCW offer hundreds of additional channels and cater to a variety of audiences.[389]RTHK is the public broadcaster, providing seven radio channels and sixfree-to-air television channels.[390][391][392] Ten non-domestic broadcasters air programming for the territory's foreign population.[386] Access to media and information over the Internet is not subject to mainland Chinese regulations, including theGreat Firewall, yet local control applies.[393]
Officially theHong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr.Hong Kong SAR orHKSAR;Chinese:中華人民共和國香港特別行政區;Cantonese Yale:Hēunggóng Dahkbiht Hàhngjingkēui).
LegallyHong Kong, China in international treaties and organizations.
^Hong Kong permanent residents can be of any nationality. A person without Chinese nationality who has entered Hong Kong with a valid travel document, has ordinarily resided there for a continuous period not less than seven years, and is permanently domiciled in the territory would be legally recognised as aHongkonger.[17]
^However, decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress override any territorial judicial process. Furthermore, the State Council may enforce national law in the region under specific circumstances.
^Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data in Hong Kong from 1991 to 2020.
^Crean, Jeffrey (2024).The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK:Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1-350-23394-2.
^ab"各區域及地區 AREAS AND DISTRICTS"(PDF).Rating and Valuation Department, Government of Hong Kong.Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved1 September 2024.
^Astrid Zweynert (22 October 2015)."New ways to help Hong Kong's human trafficking victims".Christian Science Monitor.Thomson Reuters Foundation.Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved24 June 2020.The US State Department's 2014 Trafficking in Persons report said people from mainland China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, Cambodia, and other Southeast Asian countries as well as Colombia, Chad, and Uganda had become victims of sex trafficking and forced labor in Hong Kong.
^Jason Wordie (16 January 2016)."Human trafficking in Hong Kong: hidden in plain sight".South China Morning Post.Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved24 June 2020.Likewise, legions of mainland prostitutes form a highly visible yet officially clandestine workforce in certain parts of Hong Kong. Many of these women, according to informed sources within the sex-worker sorority, have been trafficked.
^社評：人口問題精準施策 謀求旺丁要新思維 [Editorial: Targeted measures to address population issues require new thinking to achieve population growth].Ming Pao (in Traditional Chinese). 1 February 2025. Retrieved1 February 2025.
^"Top 10 Countries". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 24 January 2008. Retrieved1 February 2008.
^Feulner, Edwin."Hong Kong Is No Longer What It Was".The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved13 September 2022.
^abTsang, Donald (18 September 2006)."Big Market, Small Government" (Press release). Hong Kong Government.Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved8 June 2018.
^Lau, Chun-fat (2021).香港客家話研究 (in Chinese). Chung Hwa Book Company. pp. 2–3,8–9.ISBN9789888760046.
^abChang, Song Hing; Wan, Bo; Zhuang, Chusheng (1999), "香港新界方言調查報告" [A Study of the Geographic Distribution of Dialects in the New Territories before Urbanization (A Summary)],Journal of Chinese Studies (in Chinese) (8):361–396
^Lau, Chun-Fat (2018), "香港新界大埔汀角話概述" [A Brief Introducation to the Tingkok Dialect of Taipo, New Territories of Hong kong],Current Research in Chinese Linguistics,97 (1), Xiamen: Xiamen University:111–120
^Bacon-Shone, J; Balton, K; Lee, S. L.; Bacon-Shone, G. (2024),Hong Kong Language Maps, Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Social Sciences Research Centre
Tam, Maria Wai-chu; Chan, Eugene Kin-keung; Choi Kwan, Janice Wing-kum; Leung, Gloria Chi-kin; Lo, Alexandra Dak-wai; Tang, Simon Shu-pui (2012)."Basic Law – the Source of Hong Kong's Progress and Development"(PDF).The Basic Law and Hong Kong – The 15th Anniversary of Reunification with the Motherland. Working Group on Overseas Community of the Basic Law Promotion Steering Committee.OCLC884571397. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 12 June 2018. Retrieved3 January 2018.
Standing Committee Interpretation Concerning Implementation of Chinese Nationality Law in Hong Kong (Instrument A204)
The Education University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 444)
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Ordinance (Cap. 1075)
The Open University of Hong Kong Ordinance (Cap. 1145)
Academic publications
Chen, Li (2011). "Universalism and Equal Sovereignty as Contested Myths of International Law in the Sino-Western Encounter".Journal of the History of International Law.13 (1):75–116.doi:10.1163/157180511X552054.
Cheng, Sheung-Tak; Lum, Terry; Lam, Linda C. W.; Fung, Helene H. (2013). "Hong Kong: Embracing a Fast Aging Society With Limited Welfare".The Gerontologist.53 (4):527–533.doi:10.1093/geront/gnt017.PMID23528290.
Cullinane, S. (2002). "The relationship between car ownership and public transport provision: a case study of Hong Kong".Transport Policy.9 (1):29–39.doi:10.1016/S0967-070X(01)00028-2.
Fulton Commission (1963). "Report of the Fulton Commission, 1963: Commission to Advise on the Creation of a Federal-Type Chinese University in Hong Kong".Minerva.1 (4):493–507.doi:10.1007/bf01107190.JSTOR41821589.S2CID189763965.
McKercher, Bob; Ho, Pamela S.Y.; du Cros, Hilary (2004). "Attributes of Popular Attractions in Hong Kong".Annals of Tourism Research.31 (2):393–407.doi:10.1016/j.annals.2003.12.008.hdl:10397/29409.
Ming, Sing (2006). "The Legitimacy Problem and Democratic Reform in Hong Kong".Journal of Contemporary China.15 (48):517–532.doi:10.1080/10670560600736558.S2CID154949190.
Sofield, Trevor H.B.; Sivan, Atara (2003). "From Cultural Festival to International Sport – The Hong Kong Dragon Boat Races".Journal of Sport & Tourism.8 (1):9–20.doi:10.1080/14775080306242.S2CID144106613.
Tong, C. O.; Wong, S. C. (1997). "The advantages of a high density, mixed land use, linear urban development".Transportation.24 (3):295–307.doi:10.1023/A:1004987422746.S2CID152365622.
District Administration(PDF).Hong Kong: The Facts (Report). Hong Kong Government. April 2016. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 7 September 2008. Retrieved18 November 2008.
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