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Inclassical antiquity, writers such asHerodotus,[2]Plato,[3]Xenophon,[4]Athenaeus[5] and many others explored aspects ofhomosexuality in Greek society. Among some elite circles this often took the form ofpederasty, involving an adult man with an adolescent boy (marriages in Ancient Greece between men and women were also age structured, with men in their thirties commonly taking wives in their early teens).[6] Certain city-states allowed it while others were ambiguous or prohibited it.[7] Sexual relationships between adult men did exist, though it is possible at least one member of each of these relationships flouted social conventions by assuming a passive sexual role. It is unclear how such relations between same-sex partners were regarded in the general society, especially for women, but examples do exist as far back as the time ofSappho.[8]
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The most common form of same-sex relationships between elite males in Greece waspaiderastia (pederasty). It was a relationship between an older male and an adolescent youth. A boy was considered a "boy" until he was able to grow a full beard. The older man was callederastes. He was to educate, protect, love, and provide a role model for hiseromenos, whose reward for him lay in his beauty, youth, and promise. Such a concept is backed up by archeological evidence experts have found throughout the years, such as a bronze plaque of an older man carrying a bow and arrow while grabbing a younger man by the arms- who is carrying a goat. Furthermore, the boy's genitals are exposed in the plaque, thus experts interpret this, and more evidence comparative to this, as the practice of pederasty.[9][better source needed]
Scholars have debated the role or extent to which ancient Greeks engaged in and tolerated pederasty, which is likely to have varied according to local custom and individual inclination.[10][11] It has no formal existence in theHomeric epics, and may have developed in the late 7th century BC as an aspect of Greekhomosocial culture.[12]
Some scholars locate its origin ininitiation ritual, particularly rites of passage onCrete, where it was associated with entrance into military life and the religion ofZeus.[13] Cretan pederasty as a social institution seems to have been grounded in an initiation which involvedabduction. The man took the boy into the wilderness, where they spent two months hunting and feasting with their friends. The youth then lived in a type of public intimacy with his lover. This older man would educate the youth in the ways of Greek life and the responsibilities of adulthood.[9][14] The practice spread from Crete to other regions. Penetrative sex, however, was seen as demeaning for the passive partner, and outside the socially accepted norm.[15]
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The erastes shows restraint in his “pursuit” rather than his “capture” of the young boy, and the eromenos would similarly show restraint by not immediately giving into the older man’s sexual desires.[16] Soon after, the younger man gives in to his new mentor—erastes—and receives guidance from him. Nevertheless, it is not certain that those in submission will enjoy such "trainings" from his mentor—including sexual favors.[16] However, it is important to note that not all pederastic relationships were sexual—many were simply forms offriendship and guidance.[17]
A pederastic relationship could continue until the widespread growth of the boy's body hair, when he is considered a man. Therefore, though relationships such as this were more temporary, it had longer, lasting effects on those involved. In ancientSpartan weddings, the bride had her hair cropped short and was dressed as a man. It is explained as a tropopaic cross dressing.[18] But another explanation is given by George Devereux who suggested that this was to make the husband's transition from homosexual to heterosexual relationships easier.[19] This marks these pederasty relationships as temporary, developmental ones, not one of sexual and intimate connection like with a woman. Yet, when two men of similar age shared a similar relationship, it was deemed taboo and, in fact, perverse.[20]
The ancient Greeks, in the context of the pederastic city-states, were the first to describe, study, systematize, and establish pederasty as a social and educational institution. It was an important element in civil life, the military, philosophy and the arts.[21] There is some debate among scholars about whether pederasty was widespread in all social classes, or largely limited to the aristocracy.
It is said that there existed a military unit known asSacred Band of Thebes, made up of pairs of male lovers, is usually considered the prime example of how the ancient Greeks used love between soldiers in a troop to boost their fighting spirit. Recently, however, the existence of such a band of heroic lovers has come into question. Citing Xenophon's failure to mention it in his work the Hellenica—a political and military history of the first part of the 4th century—as, Leitao (2002) argues that "the historicity of an erotic Sacred Band rests on the most precarious of foundations" (p. 143).[22] TheThebans attributed to the Sacred Band the power of Thebes for the generation before its fall toPhilip II of Macedon, who, when he surveyed the dead after theBattle of Chaeronea (338 BC) and saw the bodies of the Sacred Band strewn on the battlefield, delivered this harsh criticism of the Spartan views of the band:
Perish miserably they who think that these men did or suffered aught disgraceful.[23]
Pammenes' opinion, according to Plutarch, was that
Homer's Nestor was not well skilled in ordering an army when he advised the Greeks to rank tribe and tribe...he should have joined lovers and their beloved. For men of the same tribe little value one another when dangers press; but a band cemented by friendship grounded upon love is never to be broken.
These bonds, reflected in episodes fromGreek mythology, such as the heroic relationship betweenAchilles and Patroclus in theIliad, were thought to boost morale as well as bravery due to the desire to impress and protect their lover. Such relationships were documented by many Greek historians and in philosophical discourses, asPlutarch demonstrates:[24]
It is not only the most warlike peoples, theBoeotians,Spartans, andCretans, who are the most susceptible to this kind of love but also the greatest heroes of old:Meleager,Achilles,Aristomenes,Cimon, andEpaminondas.
During theLelantine War between theEretrians and theChalcidians, before a decisive battle the Chalcidians called for the aid of a warrior namedCleomachus (glorious warrior). He answered their request, bringing his lover to watch. Leading the charge against the Eretrians he brought the Chalcidians to victory at the cost of his own life. The Chalcidians erected a tomb for him in themarketplace in gratitude.[citation needed]
According to the opinion of the classicistKenneth Dover who publishedGreek Homosexuality in 1978, given the importance in Greek society of cultivating the masculinity of the adult male and the perceived feminizing effect of being the passive partner, relations between adult men of comparable social status were considered highly problematic, and usually associated with social stigma.[26] This stigma, however, was reserved for only the passive partner in the relationship. According to Dover and his supporters, Greek males who engaged in passive anal sex after reaching the age of manhood—at which point they were expected to take the reverse role in pederastic relationships and become the active and dominant member—thereby were feminized or "made a woman" of themselves. Dover refers to insults used in the plays ofAristophanes as evidence 'passive' men were ridiculed.
More recent work published by James Davidson and Hubbard have challenged this model, arguing that it is reductionist and have provided evidence to the contrary.[27]
The legislatorPhilolaus of Corinth, lover of the stadion race winnerDiocles of Corinth at theAncient Olympic Games of 728 BC,[28] crafted laws for the Thebans in the 8th century BC that gave special support to male unions, contributing to the development ofTheban pederasty in which, unlike other places in ancient Greece, it favored the continuity of the union of male couples even after the younger man reached adulthood, the most famous example being theSacred Band of Thebes, composed of elite soldiers in pairs of male lovers in the 4th century BC, as was also the case with him and Diocles, who lived together in Thebes until the end of their lives.[29]
The romance betweenPausanias andAgathon inAthens, made famous by their appearance inPlato'sSymposium, also continued from the pederastic phase into adulthood as a stable and long-lasting relationship.
The first recorded appearance of a deep emotional bond between adult men in ancient Greek culture was in theIliad (800 BC). In the original epic,Homer does not depict the relationship betweenAchilles andPatroclus as sexual. However, they were depicted as such by some writers in the later classical greek period. The ancient Athenians emphasised the supposed age difference between the two by portraying Patroclus with a beard in paintings and pottery, while Achilles is clean-shaven, although Achilles was an almost godlike figure in Greek society. This led to a disagreement about which to perceive aserastes and whicheromenos among elites such asAeschylus andPausanias[citation needed], since Homeric tradition made Patroclus out to be older but Achilles stronger. It has been noted, however, that the depictions of characters on pottery do not represent reality and may cater to the beauty standards of ancient Athens. Other ancients such as Socrates argued inXenophon's Symposium that Achilles and Patroclus were simply close friends.
Aeschylus in the tragedyMyrmidons made Achilles theerastes since he had avenged his lover's death even though the gods told him it would cost his own life. However, the character ofPhaedrus inPlato'sSymposium asserts that Homer emphasized the beauty of Achilles, which would qualify him, not Patroclus, aseromenos.[30]
Theseus andPirithous are another famous pair of close adult male best friends of the same age whose strong bond has homoerotic connotations according to some ancient authors.
Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it fromMarathon and Theseus set out in pursuit. Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other's gracefulness, beauty and courage they took an oath of friendship.[31]
According to Ovid,Phaedra, Theseus' wife, felt left out by her husband's love for Pirithous and she used this as an excuse to try to convince her stepson,Hippolytus, to accept being her lover, as Theseus also neglected his son because he preferred to spend long periods with his companion.[32][33]
Orestes andPylades, similarly to Achilles and Patroclus, grew up together from childhood to adulthood. Their relationship is stronger and more intimate than any of their relationships with other people.
The relationship between them has been interpreted by some authors from Roman times onwards as romantic or homoerotic. The dialogueErotes ("Affairs of the Heart"), attributed toLucian, compares the merits and advantages of heteroeroticism and homoeroticism, and Orestes and Pylades are presented as the principal representatives of a loving friendship.
In 1734,George Frederic Handel's operaOreste (based on Giangualberto Barlocci's Roman libretto of 1723), was premiered in London'sCovent Garden. The fame of Lucian's works in the 18th century, as well as the generally well-known tradition of Greco-Roman heroic homoeroticism, made it natural for theatre audiences of that period to have recognized an intense, romantic, if not positively homoerotic quality, to the relationship between Orestes and Pylades.
Alexander the Great had a close emotional attachment to hiscavalry commander (hipparchus) and childhood friend,Hephaestion. He was "by far the dearest of all the king's friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets."[35] This relationship lasted throughout their lives, and was compared, by others as well as themselves, to that ofAchilles andPatroclus.
Hephaestion studied with Alexander, as did a handful of other children ofAncient Macedonianaristocracy, under thetutelage ofAristotle. Hephaestion makes his appearance inhistory at the point when Alexander reachesTroy. There they made sacrifices at theshrines of the two heroes Achilles and Patroclus; Alexander honoring Achilles, and Hephaestion honoring Patroclus.
Ancient writers did not conclusively identify them as lovers.[36] However, many modern scholars believe that it is possible they could have been lovers.[37] According toRobin Lane Fox, Alexander and Hephaestion were possible lovers. After Hephaestion's death in Oct 324 BC, Alexander mourned him greatly and did not eat for days.[38][full citation needed] Alexander held an elaboratefuneral for Hephaestion atBabylon, and sent a note to the shrine of Ammon, which had previously acknowledged Alexander as agod, asking them to grant Hephaestion divine honours. Thepriests declined, but did offer him the status of divinehero. Alexander died soon after receiving this letter; Mary Renault suggests that his grief over Hephaestion's death had led him to be careless with his health.
Alexander was overwhelmed by his grief for Hephaestion, so much thatArrian records that Alexander "flung himself on the body of his friend and lay there nearly all day long in tears, and refused to be parted from him until he was dragged away by force by his Companions".[39]
Generally, the lives of ancient Greek women were not well-documented.[40] The historical record of love and sexual relations between women is sparse.[8]
There is some speculation that pederastic-style relationships existed between women and adolescent girls, especially inSparta, together with athletic nudity for women. In the 700s BC, the Spartan poetAlcman used the termaitis, as the feminine form ofaites — which was the official term for the younger participant in apederastic relationship.[41]: 27–28
During the year 610 B.C., a group of teenage girls was documented singing classic hymns during ploughing rituals.[42] Such songs involved likely flirtation, with lyrics like ""If only Astaphis were mine, if only Philulla were to look in my direction" and ". . . but I mustn't go on, for Hagesichora has got her eye on me."[42]
Thy soul
Grown delicate with satieties,
Atthis.
O Atthis,
I long for thy lips.
I long for thy narrow breasts,
Thou restless, ungathered.
—Ezra Pound, "ἰμέρρω":[43] adaptation ofSappho 96
The lyric poetSappho was born on the Greek island ofLesbos sometime between 630 and 612 BCE.[44] She wrote many wedding songs and love poems addressed to women, and became so well-known that she lent the name of her island, "lesbian", to eventually mean "love between women".
The Library of Alexandria collected Sappho's work into nine volumes, much of which was lost in the fire.[45] Only about 600 lines of Sappho's estimated 12,000 lines of poetry have survived.[46]
In the 300s BCE,Aristophanes, inPlato'sSymposium, recounts a story accounting for the origin of human love. Before being split in half by the gods, humans were originally created with four legs, four arms, and two faces. Since we were split, each human is always seeking our other half to become complete. He says that there were originally four-legged male people (who became men attracted only to men), four-legged hermaphroditic people (who became heterosexuals), and four-legged female people (who are women attracted to women).[47][a] The four-legged females become women who "do not care for men, but have female attachments".[48] For these relationships between women, Aristophanes uses the termtrepesthai (to be focused on) instead oferos, which was applied to other erotic relationships between men, and between men and women.[49]: 47
In the A.D. 100s, inLucian'sDialogues of the Courtesans, a female character admits to having lesbian sex, and talks about being pursued by two female characters.[50]
Lesbian relationships also may be portrayed in ancient Greek pottery. Historian Nancy Rabinowitz argues thatred vase images which portray women with their arms around another woman's waist, or leaning on a woman's shoulders can be construed as expressions of romantic desire.[40] Women who appear on Greek pottery are depicted with affection, and in instances where women appear only with other women, their images are eroticized: bathing, touching one another, withdildos placed in and around such scenes, and sometimes with imagery also seen in depictions of heterosexual marriage or pederastic seduction.[41]: 27–28 [40]
After a long hiatus marked by censorship of homosexual themes,[51] modern historians picked up the threads, starting with Erich Bethe in 1907 and continuing with K. J. Dover and many others. These scholars have shown that same-sex relations were openly practised, largely with official sanction, in many areas of life from the 7th century BC until the Roman era.
Some scholars believe that same-sex relationships, especially pederasty, were common only among the aristocracy, and that such relationships were not widely practised by the common people (demos). One such scholar isBruce Thornton, who argues that insults directed at pederastic males in the comedies ofAristophanes show the common people's dislike for the practice.[52] Thomas Hubbard is another scholar who says that pederasty was not the norm and was highly problematized in ancient Greek society.[53] Other scholars, such asVictoria Wohl [de], emphasize that inAthens, same-sex desire was part of the "sexual ideology of the democracy", shared by the elite and thedemos, as exemplified by the tyrant-slayers,Harmodius and Aristogeiton.[54] Even those who argue that pederasty was limited to the upper classes generally concede that it was "part of the social structure of thepolis".[52]
Other scholars, like David Halperin, say that Greek society did not distinguishsexual desire or behavior by thegender of the participants, but rather by the role that each participant played in the sex act, that ofactive penetrator orpassive penetrated.[8] Within the traditions of pederasty, active/passive polarization corresponded with dominant and submissive social roles: the active (penetrative) role was associated withmasculinity,higher social status, andadulthood, while thepassive role was associated withfemininity,lower social status, andyouth.[8] But his views have come under heavy criticism from scholars like Griffin who suggested that Halperin exaggerated ideas drawn from Foucault. Griffin wrote that Halperin did not "succeed in disproving the natural reading of a number of Greek texts, which is that some forms of sexual activity were discountenanced, and that some people were categorized by their sexual activities."[55]
Dover argues that pederasty was not considered to be a homosexual act, given that the 'man' would be taking on a dominant role, and his disciple would be taking on a passive one. When intercourse occurred between two people of the same gender, it still was not entirely regarded as a homosexual union, given that one partner would have to take on a passive role, and would therefore no longer be considered a 'man' in terms of the sexual union.[56] Hubbard andJames Davidson disagrees, arguing that there is insufficient evidence that a man was considered effeminate for being passive in sex alone. For example, the lowborn protagonist ofAristophanes' playThe Knights openly admits to having been a passive partner.[57]
Considerable controversy has engaged the scholarly world concerning the nature of same-sex relationships among the ancient Greeks described by Thomas Hubbard in the Introduction toHomosexuality in Greece and Rome, A Source Book of Basic Documents, 2007, p. 2: "The field of Gay Studies has, virtually since its inception, been divided between 'essentialists' those who believe in an archetypical pattern of same gender attraction that is universal, transhistorical, and transcultural, and "social constructionists", those who hold that patterns of sexual preference manifest themselves with different significance in different societies and that no essential identity exists between practitioners of same-gender love in, for instance, ancient Greece and post industrial Western society. Some social constructionists have even gone so far as to deny that sexual preference was a significant category for the ancients or that any kind of subculture based on sexual object-choice existed in the ancient world", p. 2 (he cites Halperin and Foucault in the social constructionist camp and Boswell and Thorp in the essentialist; cf. E. Stein for a collection of essays,Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy, 1992). Hubbard states that "Close examination of a range of ancient texts suggests, however, that some forms of sexual preference were, in fact, considered a distinguishing characteristic of individuals. Many texts even see such preferences as inborn qualities and as "essential aspects of human identity..." ibid. Hubbard utilizes both schools of thought when these seem pertinent to the ancient texts, pp. 2–20.
During Plato's time there were people who were of the opinion that homosexual sex was shameful in any circumstances. In his ideal city, he says in his last, posthumously published work known asThe Laws homosexual sex will be treated the same way as incest. It is something contrary to nature, he insists, calling it "utterly unholy, odious-to-the-gods and ugliest of ugly things".[58]
The subject has caused controversy in modern Greece. In 2002, a conference on Alexander the Great was stormed as a paper about his homosexuality was about to be presented.[59] When the filmAlexander, which depicted Alexander as romantically involved with both men and women, was released in 2004, 25 Greek lawyers threatened to sue the film's makers,[60] but relented after attending an advance screening of the film.[61]
![Attic kylix depicting a lover and a beloved. Brygos Painter. Around 485 - 480 BCE. Ashmolean Museum[62]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBrygos_Painter_-_ARV_378_137_-_man_courting_youth_-_Oxford_AM_1967-304_-_01.jpg)
![Attic kylix depicting a lover and a beloved kissing. Artist: painter of Briseis. Around 480 BCE. Louvre Museum[63]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKiss_Briseis_Painter_Louvre_G278_full.jpg)
![Pederastic courtship scenes.[64] It has been commented that "Hares were popular love gifts in Athenian society...[and] ...a hare can be seen siting tamely on the lap of one of the seated figures."[64] The outside of an Attic cup. Kylix. Artist; Douris. Potter; Attributed to the Python potter. Around 480 BCE. J. Paul Getty Museum](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAttic_Kylix_-_Douris_-_Python_-_Around_480BCE_-_J._Paul_Getty_Museum_-_Object_Number%3b_86.AE.290_-_(3).jpg)
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