H. rhodesiensis is now widely considered a synonym ofH. heidelbergensis.[3] Other designations such asHomo sapiens arcaicus[4] andH. sapiens rhodesiensis[5] have also been proposed.
A number ofmorphologically comparable fossil remains came to light in East Africa (Bodo, Ndutu, Eyasi,Ileret) and North Africa (Salé, Rabat, Dar-es-Soltane, Djbel Irhoud, Sidi Aberrahaman, Tighenif) during the 20th century.[6]
Kabwe 1, also called the "Broken Hill skull" or "Rhodesian Man", was assigned byArthur Smith Woodward in 1921 as the type specimen forHomo rhodesiensis; most contemporary scientists forego the taxon "rhodesiensis" altogether and assign it toHomo heidelbergensis.[7] Thecranium was discovered inBroken Hill lead mine in Mutwe Wa Nsofu Area ofNorthern Rhodesia (nowKabwe,Zambia) on June 17, 1921[8] by two miners. In addition to the cranium, an upperjaw from another individual, asacrum, atibia, and twofemur fragments were also found.
Bodo cranium, a 600,000-year-old[9] fossil was found in 1976 by members of an expedition led by Jon Kalb at Bodo D'ar in theAwash River valley ofEthiopia.[10] It was discovered by the Rift Valley Research Mission which conducted a number of surveys that led to the findings of Acheulean tools and animal fossils alongside the Bodo Cranium.[11] The first specimen was discovered by Alemayhew Asfaw and Charles Smart, who found a lower face. Two weeks later, Paul Whitehead and Craig Wood found the upper portion of the face. Pieces of the cranium were discovered along the surface of one of the dry branches of the Awash River in Ethiopia.[12] The cranium, artifacts, and other animal fossils were found over a relatively large area of medium sand, and only a few of the tools were found near the cranium.[13][14] Although the skull is most similar to those of Kabwe, Woodward's nomenclature was discontinued and its discoverers attributed it toH. heidelbergensis.[15] It has features that represent a transition betweenH. ergaster/erectus andH. sapiens.[16]
Ndutu cranium,[17] discovered fromLake Ndutu in northern Tanzania, is around 320,000 to 600,000 years old.[18] In 1976Ronald J. Clarke classified it asH. erectus and it has generally been viewed that way, although points of similarity toH. sapiens have also been recognized. After comparative studies with similar finds in Africa allocation to an African subspecies ofH. sapiens was considered most appropriate by Phillip Rightmire.[19] An indirect cranial capacity estimate suggests 1100 ml. Its supratoral sulcus morphology and the presence of protuberance as suggested by Rightmire "give the Ndutu occiput an appearance which is also unlike that ofHomo erectus". And in a 1989 publication Clarke concluded: "It is assigned to archaicH. sapiens on the basis of its expanded parietal and occipital regions of the brain".[20] But Stinger (1986) pointed out that a thickened iliac pillar is typical forH. erectus.[21] In 2016, Chris Stringer classified the cranium as belonging toH. heidelbergensis/H. rhodesiensis (a species considered to be intermediate betweenH. erectus andH. sapiens) rather than as earlyH. sapiens, but considers it to display a "more sapiens-like zygomaxillary morphology" than certain other examples ofH. rhodesiensis.[22]
TheSaldanha cranium found in 1953 in South Africa, and estimated at around 500,000 years old, was subject to at least three taxonomic revisions from 1955 to 1996.[23]
This specimen has an unusually largecranial capacity for its age that is estimated at around 1250 cc (in the range between ~1,200–1,325 cc)within the (lower) range of modernHomo sapiens.[24]The cranium includes the face, much of thefrontal bone, parts of the midvault and the base anterior to theforamen magnum. The cranial length, width and height are 21 cm (8.3 in), 15.87 cm (6.2 in) and 19.05 cm (7.5 in) respectively. Researchers have suggested that Bodobutchered animals becauseAcheuleanhand axes andcleavers, along with animal bones, were found at the site. Cuts on the Bodo cranium show the earliest evidence of removal of flesh immediately after the death of an individual using a stone tool.[13] The findings of symmetrical cut marks with specific patterns and directionality on the cranium serve as strong evidence that de-fleshing was done purposefully for mortuary practices and represents the earliest evidence of non-utilitarian mortuary practices.[13][25] The cut marks were located "laterally among the maxilla" causing speculation among researchers that the specific reason for de-fleshing was to remove the mandible.[26]
The front of the Bodo cranium is very broad and supports large supraorbital structures. The supraorbital torus projects and is heavily constructed, especially in the central parts of the cranium. The glabella is rounded and projects strongly. LikeH. erectus, the brain case is low and archaic in appearance. The vault bones are also thick likeH. erectus specimens. Due to the large cranial capacity, there is a wider midvault which includes signs ofparietal bossing as well as a high contour of thetemporal squama. The parietal length can't be accurately determined because that section of the specimen is incomplete. Though the mastoid is missing, insights regarding the specimen can be determined using fragments from the individual collected at the scene in 1981. The cranium's parietal walls expand relative to the bitemporal width in a way that is characteristic of modern humans. The squamosal suture has a high arch which is present in modern human craniums as well.[27]
The cranium has an unusual appearance, which has led to debates over its taxonomy. It displays both primitive and derived features, such as a cranial capacity more similar to modern humans and a projecting supraorbital torus more likeH. erectus.[12][28][29] Bodo and otherMid-Pleistocene hominin fossils appear to represent a lineage betweenH. erectus andanatomically modern humans, although its exact location in the human evolutionary tree is still uncertain.[30][31] Due to the similarities to both Homo erectus and modern humans, it has been postulated that the Bodo cranium, as well as other members ofH. heidelbergensis were part of a group of hominins that evolved distinct fromH. erectus early in the Middle Pleistocene. Despite the similarities, there is still a question of where exactlyH. heidelbergensis evolved. The increasedencephalization seen in fossils like the Bodo cranium is thought to have been a driving force in thespeciation of anatomically modern humans.[32][33]
Similarities between the Bodo cranium and Kabwe cranium
Both the Bodo cranium and the Kabwe cranium share a number of similarities. Both have cranial capacities similar to, but on the low end of the range of modern humans (1250 cc vs 1230 cc). Both craniums have a very largesupraorbital torus. These two features together suggest that they are a link betweenH. erectus andH. sapiens.[34] The morphology and the taxonomy are most similar to other specimens of typeH. heidelbergensis.[35] Both the Bodo and Kabwe specimens can be described as archaic because they retain certain features in common withHomo erectus. However, both exhibit important differences fromHomo erectus in their anatomy, such as the contour of their parietals, the shape of their temporal bones, thecranial base, and themorphology of their nose and palate. While there are many similarities, there are a few differences between the specimens, including the entire brow of the Bodo cranium, particularly the lateral segments, which are less thick than the Kabwe specimen.[27]
In 2021, Canadian anthropologist Mirjana Roksandic and colleagues recommended the complete dissolution ofH. heidelbergensis andH. rhodesiensis, as the namerhodesiensis honours Englishdiamond magnateCecil Rhodes who disenfranchised the black population in southern Africa. They classified all EuropeanH. heidelbergensis asH. neanderthalensis, and synonymisedH. rhodesiensis with a new species they namedH. bodoensis which includes all African specimens, and potentially some from the Levant and the Balkans which have no Neanderthal-derived traits (namely Ceprano, Mala Balanica, HaZore'a and Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar).H. bodoensis is supposed to represent the immediate ancestor of modern humans, but does not include thelast common ancestor of modern humans and Neanderthals. They suggested the confusing morphology of the Middle Pleistocene was caused by periodicH. bodoensis migration events into Europe following population collapses after glacial cycles, interbreeding with surviving indigenous populations.[36] Their taxonomic recommendations were rejected by Stringer and others as they failed to explain how exactly their proposals would resolve anything, in addition to violating nomenclatural rules.[37][38]
^Hublin, J.-J. (2013). "The Middle Pleistocene Record. On the Origin of Neandertals, Modern Humans and Others". In R. David Begun (ed.).A Companion to Paleoanthropology. John Wiley. pp. 517–537 (p. 523).ISBN978-1-118-33237-5.
^Kalb, Jon E.; Wood, Craig B.; Smart, Charles; Oswald, Elizabeth B.; Mabrete, Assefa; Tebedge, Sleshi; Whitehead, Paul (1980-01-01). "Preliminary geology and palaeontology of the Bodo D'ar hominid Site, Afar, Ethiopia".Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.30:107–120.Bibcode:1980PPP....30..107K.doi:10.1016/0031-0182(80)90052-8.ISSN0031-0182.
^"Bodo fossil". Britannica Encyclopedia. RetrievedDecember 9, 2015.
^Rightmire, G. Philip (2005). "The Lake Ndutu cranium and earlyHomo sapiens in Africa".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.61 (2):245–254.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330610214.PMID6410925.
^Rightmire GP (June 3, 1983). "The Lake Ndutu cranium and earlyHomo sapiens in Africa".Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.61 (2):245–54.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330610214.PMID6410925.
^Milner, Richard (1990). "Cranial Capacity".The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search For Its Origins. New York: Holt. p. 98.Living humans have a cranial capacity ranging from about 950 cc to 1800 cc, with the average about 1400 cc.
^Conroy, Glenn C.; Weber, Gerhard W.; Seidler, Horst; Recheis, Wolfgang; Nedden, Dieter Zur; Mariam, Jara Haile (2000). "Endocranial capacity of the Bodo cranium determined from three-dimensional computed tomography".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.113 (1):111–118.doi:10.1002/1096-8644(200009)113:1<111::aid-ajpa10>3.0.co;2-x.ISSN1096-8644.PMID10954624.
^Delson, E.; Stringer, C. (2022). "The naming ofHomo bodoensis by Roksandic and colleagues does not resolve issues surrounding Middle Pleistocene human evolution".Evolutionary Anthropology.31 (5):233–236.doi:10.1002/evan.21950.PMID35758557.S2CID250070886.
Singer Robert R. and J. Wymer (1968). "Archaeological Investigation at the Saldanha Skull Site in South Africa".The South African Archaeological Bulletin.23 (3). The South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 91:63–73.doi:10.2307/3888485.JSTOR3888485.
Murrill, Rupert I. (1975). "A comparison of the Rhodesian and Petralona upper jaws in relation to other Pleistocene hominids".Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie.66 (2):176–187.doi:10.1127/zma/66/1975/176.PMID806185.S2CID3097781..
Murrill, Rupert Ivan (1981). Ed. Charles C. Thomas (ed.).Petralona Man. A Descriptive and Comparative Study, with New Information on Rhodesian Man. Springfield, Illinois: Thomas.ISBN0-398-04550-X.
Rightmire, G. Philip (2005). "The Lake Ndutu cranium and earlyHomo sapiens in Africa".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.61 (2):245–254.doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330610214.PMID6410925..
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