Holinshed's Chronicles, also known asHolinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, is a collaborative work published in several volumes and two editions, the first edition in 1577, and the second in 1587. It was a large, comprehensive description ofBritish history published in three volumes (England,Scotland andIreland).
TheChronicles have been a source of interest because of their extensive links toShakespearean history, as well asKing Lear,Macbeth andCymbeline. Recent studies of theChronicles have focused on an inter-disciplinary approach; numerous literary scholars have studied the traditionalhistoriographical materials through a literary lens, with a focus on how contemporary men and women would have read historical texts.[1]
TheChronicles would have been a primary source for many other literary writers of theRenaissance such asChristopher Marlowe,Edmund Spenser andGeorge Daniel.[2]
In 1548,Reginald Wolfe, a London printer, conceived the idea of creating a "Universal Cosmography of the whole world, and therewith also certain particular histories of every known nation". He wanted the work to be printed in English, and he wanted maps and illustrations in the book as well. He acquired many ofJohn Leland's works, and with these he constructed chronologies and drew maps that were up to date. When Wolfe realised he could not complete this project on his own, he hiredRaphael Holinshed andWilliam Harrison to assist him.
Wolfe died with the work still uncompleted in 1573, and the project—changed to a work specifically about the British Isles—was run by a consortium of three members of theStationers' Company. They retained Holinshed, who employed Harrison,Richard Stanyhurst,Edmund Campion andJohn Hooker. In 1577, the work was published in two volumes after some censorship by thePrivy Council of some of Stanyhurst's contribution on Ireland.[3]
TheChronicles narrative is characterised by a set of rhetorical figures and thematic paradigms that establish the national, royal, chivalrous and heroic ideals that define a state, its monarch, its leaders, and the political role of the common people.[4]
William Shakespeare is widely believed[5] to have used the revised second edition of theChronicles (published in 1587) as the source for most of hishistory plays, the plot ofMacbeth, and portions ofKing Lear andCymbeline.
Several other playwrights, such asChristopher Marlowe, used theChronicles as a source.
Shakespeare used Holinshed's work extensively inMacbeth, but in modified form. An instance is theThree Witches, whom Holinshed describes as "creatures of the elderwood ... nymphs or fairies". Nymphs and fairies are generally viewed as beautiful and youthful, but Shakespeare's three witches inMacbeth are ugly, dark, and bizarre. It is believed that he made the change to heighten the suspense and darkness of the play.[6] However, theChronicles lacked any descriptions of Macbeth's character, so Shakespeare improvised on several points.[6] The charactersBanquo andFleance were also taken from Holinshed's works, but they are now considered to be inventions of the 16th century.[7]
The primary difference in theChronicles is through characterisation. The character of Macbeth is primarily depicted as a good ruler, a king who was fair and just for 17 years. The plot displays King Duncan as a minor character and a weak king. It is possible that the reading of Shakespeare's King Duncan was inspired by the tale ofKing Duffe contained within theChronicle. This story follows a similar narrative, as King Duffe and his murderer Donwald closely mirror the narrative of King Duncan and Macbeth. The badomens following the murder of Duffe are similarly mirrored in Shakespeare's narrative.
TheChronicles tale of Macbeth differs from Shakespeare's version in numerous ways. The play features a scene in which Banquo and Macbeth encounterthree women, each of whom speaks of a prophecy that would contribute to the characterisation of these women as 'otherworldly'.[8] The first woman says "All hayle Makbeth Thane of Glammis" (the title which he had just inherited following the death of his father). Two of the women say "All hayle Macbeth, Thane of Cawder". The third also says "All hayle Makbeth that hereafter shall be king of Scotland". As soon as they had appeared, the three women "vanished immediately out of theyr sight".[9]
In theChronicles version, Macbeth is a much more sympathetic character. King Duncan is depicted as a weak ruler who violates the Scottish laws of succession by failing to consult with theThanes before naming his son, a mere child named Malcolm, to rule after him. Macbeth and many other Thanes are enraged by this action.
Spurred on by the words of the three women he encounters, Macbeth is encouraged to attempt to usurp the kingdom by force. He is also spurred on by hiswife, who is ambitious and desires the title of queen for herself.
InHolinshed's Chronicles,Banquo is shown as a scheming character: he is an accomplice in Macbeth's murder of Duncan. In comparison to Shakespeare's version, in which Duncan is murdered in his sleep, Duncan is slain in battle and his death is not highly detailed; "[Macbeth] slue the king at Enuerns ... in the sixt yeare of his reigne."[10]
In theChronicles, Macbeth rules Scotland not briefly, but for 10 years, and is a capable and wise monarch who implements commendable laws. Fearing that Banquo will seize the kingdom, Macbeth invites him to a supper where he intends to kill him and his son. He succeeds in killing Banquo, but his son, Fleance, flees to Wales. Macbeth, convinced by the witches of his invincibility, commits outrageous acts against his subjects, gradually becoming a cruel and paranoid ruler.
The tale ends with Macbeth slain byMacduff, who then brings his head to the son of the original king, Malcolm.
It is believed that Shakespeare would have used the revised second edition of theChronicles, which was published in 1587. Shakespeare'sKing Lear loosely follows the story detailed in theChronicles.In theChronicles, Leir's eldest daughters,Gonerilla andRegan, are married to the Dukes of Cornwall and Albany. After the love test Leir decrees only half of his kingdom is to be assigned to the dukes immediately, with the rest to be divided at his death. This leads to the dukes seizing power and Leir being left with only a small retinue to maintain him. Leir then flees toGallia where his youngest daughter, Cordelia, is living. Owing to his youngest daughter's faithful support, he names Cordelia his sole heir. She and her husband Aganippus, the King of theFranks, raise an army and restore Leir to the throne, killing the Dukes. Leir then rules for two years before his death and is succeeded by Cordelia, who rules for a subsequent five years.[11]
A primary difference in theChronicles is the continuation of the feuding through the children of the sisters. The sons of Gonerilla and Regan rise up against and imprison Cordelia, leading to a period of civil war, and Cordelia commits suicide.
The 1577Chronicle featureswoodcuts of King Lear andCordelia, depicted as the rightful rulers and highlighting their prevailing goodness within the story.
Writers who may have influenced King Lear includeGeoffrey of Monmouth andEdmund Spenser, withthe anonymousKing Leir also contributing inspiration.
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