Hohhot,[a] formerly known asKweisui,[b] is thecapital and largest city ofInner Mongolia in thenorth of thePeople's Republic of China,[5][6] serving as the region's administrative, economic and cultural center.[7] Its population was 3,446,100 inhabitants as of the 2020 census, of whom 2,944,889 lived in the metropolitan area consisting of 4 urban districts (including Hohhot Economic and Development Zone) plus theTumed Left Banner.[8]
The name of the city in Mongolian means "Blue City", although it is also wrongly referred to as the "Green City."[9] The color blue in Mongol culture is associated with the sky, eternity and purity. In Chinese, the name can be translated asQīng Chéng (Chinese:青城;lit. 'Blue/Green City')[10] The name has also been variously romanized as Kokotan, Kokutan, Kuku-hoton, Huhohaot'e, Huhehot, Huhhot, Huhot, or Köke qota.[6]
The city is a seat of theInner Mongolia University, the largest regional comprehensive university and was the only211 Project University in Inner Mongolia.
The commandery was created duringKing Wuling of Zhao's reign after a successful campaign against the Linhu (林胡) and Loufan (樓煩) peoples.[11] After the establishment ofQin andHan dynasty, the commandery became the frontier between Han and theXiongnu. In early Han dynasty, the region saw frequent Xiongnu raids. However, fromEmperor Wu's reign onwards, it became an important base of military operations in thewars against the Xiongnu.[12] In 127 BC, it was from Yunzhong that GeneralWei Qing led a 40,000-men strong cavalry force and conquered the modernHetao andOrdos regions.
In 2 AD, the commandery administered 11 counties, namely Yunzhong (雲中), Xianyang (咸陽), Taolin (陶林), Zhenling (楨陵), Duhe (犢和), Shaling (沙陵), Yuanyang (原陽), Shanan (沙南), Beiyu (北輿), Wuquan (武泉) and Yangshou (陽壽). The population totaled 38,303 households, or 173,270 people.[13] During Eastern Han, 3 counties were abolished, while 3 new counties were added fromDingxiang Commandery. In 140 AD, the population was 5,351 households, or a population of 26,430.[14] Toward the late Han dynasty, the area's population decreased sharply as residents fled from invading northern nomadic peoples, and the commandery was dissolved.[15]
The Tuoba chieftain Gui (calledTuoba Gui) was able to refound theDai empire in 386, and later renamed his state toWei. From his capital atShengle (near modern Helingeer). His descendants would, step by step, conquer the north of China, divide theLater Yan realm into two parts, and subdue theXia (407–431), theLater Qin (384–417) and the many Liang and Yan empires.[16]
In 1557, theTümed Mongol leaderAltan Khan began building theDa Zhao Temple on the Tümed plain in order to convince theMing dynasty (1368–1644) government of his leadership of the southern Mongol tribes.[17] The town that grew up around this temple was called the "Blue Town" (Kokegota in Mongolian). The Ming had beenblockading the Mongols' access to Chinese iron, cotton, and crop seeds, in order to dissuade them from attacking theNorth China plain. In 1570, Altan Khan successfully negotiated the end of the blockade by establishing avassal-tributary relationship with the Ming, who changed Kokegota's name toGuihua (traditional Chinese:歸化;simplified Chinese:归化;pinyin:Guīhuà;postal:Kweihua;lit. 'Return to Civilization') in 1575. The population of Guihua grew to over 150,000 in the early 1630s as local Mongol princes encouraged the settlement ofHan Chinese merchants. There were occasional attacks on Guihua by Mongol armies, such as the total razing of the city byLigdan Khan in 1631. Altan Khan and his successors constructed temples and fortresses in 1579, 1602 and 1727. The Tümed Mongols of the area had long since adopted a semiagricultural way of life.Hui merchants gathered north of the gate of the city's fortress, building a mosque in 1693.[18] Their descendants formed the nucleus of the modern Huimin district.
After theManchus founded theQing dynasty (1644–1912), theKangxi Emperor (reigned 1661–1722) sent troops to control the region,[9] which was of interest to the Qing as a center of study ofTibetan Buddhism. Just 2 km northeast of Guihua the Qing built the strong garrison town ofSuiyuan (traditional Chinese:綏遠;simplified Chinese:绥远;pinyin:PRC Standard Mandarin: Suíyuǎn,ROC Standard Mandarin: Suīyuǎn), from which they supervised the defense of southwestern Inner Mongolia against Mongol attacks from the north in 1735–39.[19]: 13 [20] Guihua and Suiyuan was merged intoShanxi province and became Guihua County (歸化縣;归化县;Guīhuà Xiàn) of Qing China. French missionaries established aCatholic church in Guihua in 1874, but the Christians were forced to flee to Beijing during the antiforeignBoxer Rebellion of 1899–1901.
In 1913, the government of the newRepublic of China united the garrison town of Suiyuan and the old town of Guihua asGuisui (traditional Chinese:歸綏;simplified Chinese:归绥;pinyin:PRC Standard Mandarin: Guīsuí,ROC Standard Mandarin: Guīsuī;postal:Kweisui). Guisui town was the center of Guisui County (歸綏縣;归绥县;PRC: Guīsuí Xiàn,ROC: Guīsuī Xiàn) and the capital ofSuiyuan Province in northern China. Abubonic plague outbreak in 1917 and the connection of Guisui to railway links inShanxi,Shaanxi,Hebei, andBeijing helped renew the economy of Guisui town by forming links witheastern China and western China'sXinjiang province.[19]: 15 In 1918, the American specialist on Inner AsiaOwen Lattimore noted Guisui's ethnic composition as "a town purelyHan Chinese except for the Lama monasteries ... the Tümeds are now practically nonexistent and the nearest Mongolians are to be sought at 50 or 60 miles [80 or 100 kilometres] distance on the plateau."[19]: 15 During the progressiveJapanese invasion of China in the 1930s, the Japanese created the puppet state ofMengjiang headed byPrince De, who renamed Guisui "Blue City"Hohhot; (Chinese:厚和市;pinyin:Hòuhé shì).[21] After thesurrender of Japan in 1945, the Republic of China changed the name back to Guisui.[19]: 16 TheChinese Communist Party's forces drove out GeneralFu Zuoyi, the Republic's commander in Suiyuan, during theChinese Civil War, and after theChinese Communist Revolution in 1949, Guisui was renamed Hohhot.[19]: 16
During the Civil War, seeking the support of separatist Mongols, the Communists established theInner Mongolia Autonomous Region in Mongol-minority areas of the Republic's provinces ofSuiyuan,Xing'an,Chahar, andRehe. Guisui was chosen as the region's administrative centre in 1952, replacingZhangjiakou. In 1954, after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the city was renamed from Guisui toHohhot, though with a different Chinese pronunciation ofHuhehaote.[19]: 16
The city has seen significant development since China'sreform and opening began. The city's far east side began development around 2000 and is now home to the municipal government, most of the Autonomous Region's administrative buildings,[22] an artificial lake called Ruyi He,[23] and a large number ofcondominiums, mostly built by the local real estate companyGold Horse International Inc. TheHohhot City Stadium, built on the city's north side, was finished in 2007.[24]
A city with a rich cultural background, Hohhot is known for its historical sites and temples and is one of the major tourist destinations of Inner Mongolia. It is also nationally known as the home of China's dairy giantsMengniu andYili,[25][26] and was declared "Dairy Capital of China" by the China Dairy Industry Association and the Dairy Association of China in 2005.[27]
People's Republic 10th Anniversary Parade in Hohhot
Hohhot features a coldsemi-arid climate (KöppenBSk), marked by long, cold, and very dry winters; hot, somewhat humid summers; strong winds (especially in spring); andmonsoonal influence. The coldest month is January, with a daily mean of −10.7 °C (12.7 °F), while July, the hottest month, averages 23.2 °C (73.8 °F). The annual mean temperature is 7.6 °C (45.7 °F), and the annual precipitation is 411 millimetres (16.2 in), with more than half of it falling in July and August alone. Variability can be very high, however: in 1965 Hohhot recorded as little as 155.1 mm (6.11 in) but six years before that, as much as 929.2 mm (36.58 in), of which over a third (338.6 mm (13.33 in)) only in July.[30]
Hohhot is a popular destination for tourists during the summer months because of the nearby Zhaohegrasslands. More recently, due to desertification, the city seessandstorms on almost an annual basis. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 54 percent in November to 66 percent in September, sunshine is abundant year-round, the city receives 2,680 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −32.8 °C (−27 °F) on 6 February 1951 to 38.9 °C (102 °F) on 30 July 2010, though unofficially a record low of −36.2 °C (−33 °F) was recorded in January 1930.[31][32]
Climate data for Hohhot, elevation 1,154 m (3,786 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present)
The city is administratively at the prefecture-level, meaning that it administers both its urban area and the rural regions in its vicinity. The administrative area includes 4 counties, 4 districts, and a county-levelbanner; they are further divided into 20 urban sub-districts, and 96 townships. The data here represented is in km2 and uses data from the 2010 Census.
Population size may be affected by changes on administrative divisions.
The urban population of Hohhot has increased rapidly since the 1990s. According to the2010 Census, the population of Hohhot had reached 2,866,615 people, 428,717 more inhabitants than in 2000 (the average annual demographic growth for the period 2000–2010 was of 1.63 percent).[8][39] Its built-up (or metro) area is home to 1,980,774 inhabitants (4 urban districts).
The majority of the population of Hohhot areHan Chinese, representing 87.16 percent of the total population in 2010. Most Han in Hohhot, if their ancestry is traced several decades back, have ancestors fromShanxi,northeast China, orHebei. Most Mongols in the city speakChinese. A 1993 survey conducted byInner Mongolia University found that only 8 percent of Tümed Mongols (the majority tribe in Hohhot) could speak theMongolian language.[19]: 15 A significant portion of the population is of mixed ethnic origin. According to the anthropologist William Jankowiak, author of the bookSex, Death, and Hierarchy in a Chinese City (1993), there is "relatively little difference between minority culture and Han culture" in Hohhot, with differences concentrating around relatively minor attributes such as food and art, and similarities abounding over fundamental issues of ethics, status, life goals, and worldview.[19]: 5
Ethnic groups in Hohhot, according to the 2000 census, were:
Hohhot is a major industrial center withinInner Mongolia. Together withBaotou andOrdos, it accounts for more than 60 percent of the total industrial output of Inner Mongolia.[40] After Baotou and Ordos, it is the third-largest economy of the province, with GDP of RMB 247.56 billion in 2012, up 11.0 percent year on year.[41] Hohhot accounted for approximately 15.5 percent of the province's total GDP in 2012.[42] It is also the largest consumer center in the region, recording¥102.2 billion retail sales of consumer goods in 2012, an increase of 14.9 percent from 2011.[41] The city has been a central developmental target for theChina Western Development project being pursued by the Central Government. There are many famous enterprises located in Hohhot, including China's largest dairy producer by sales revenue, the Inner Mongolia Yili Industrial Group, and the China Mengniu Dairy Co.[43]
As the economic center of Inner Mongolia, Hohhot's urban area has expanded greatly since the 1990s.CBDs have grown rapidly in all the city's major districts. The completion of a new office tower for the Municipal Government in Eastern Hohhot marked a shift of the city center to the east. Hailiang Plaza (海亮广场), a 41-floor tower constructed in the city center, became one of the few notable department stores forluxury merchandise in the city.
A sign in Mongolian, Chinese, Tibetan, and Manchurian at theDazhao temple in Hohhot.
Due to its relatively diverse cultural make-up, and despite its characteristics as a mid-sized Chinese industrial city, the Hohhot street scene has no shortage of ethnic minority elements. Tongdao Road, a major street in the old town area, is decorated with Islamic and Mongol exterior designs on all its buildings. A series of government initiatives in recent years have emphasized Hohhot's identity with ethnic minority groups, especially in increasing Mongol-themed architecture around the city. By regulation, all street signs and public transportation announcements are in both Chinese and Mongolian.[44]
Older Hohhot residents mostly tend to converse in theHohhot dialect, a branch of theJin language from neighbouringShanxi province. This spoken form can be difficult to understand for speakers of otherMandarin Chinese dialects. The newer residents, mostly concentrated in Xincheng and Saihan Districts, speak Hohhot-based Mandarin, the majority also with a noticeable accent and some unique vocabulary.
Food specialty in the area is mostly focused on Mongol cuisine and dairy products. Commercially, Hohhot is known for being the base of the nationally renowned dairy giantsYili andMengniu. The Mongol drinksuutei tsai (Chinese:奶茶;pinyin:nǎichá;lit. 'milk tea'), has become a typical breakfast selection for anyone living in or visiting the city.[45] The city also has rich traditions in the making ofhot pot andshaomai, a type of traditionalChinesedumpling served asdim sum.[46]
Hohhot lies on theJingbao Railway from Beijing to Baotou, and is served by two railway stations:Hohhot railway station andHohhot East railway station.[49] The line began operation in 1921.[50]Trains to Beijing link to destinations to the south and thenortheast. The most prominent rail link with Beijing is the overnight K90 train, which has served the Hohhot-Beijing line since the 1980s and is referred to colloquially as the "9-0". Westbound trains go through Baotou andLanzhou. There are also rail links to most major Inner Mongolian cities and toUlaanbaatar, Mongolia.
Because the quickest trip to Beijing takes around six and a half hours despite the relatively close proximity of the two cities, plans forhigh-speed rail were discussed extensively prior to the construction of a high-speed railway station beginning in 2008. The station was completed in 2011 and initially serviced only ordinary lines. In January 2015, CRH opened its first D-series (dongchezu) route in Inner Mongolia in the Baotou-Hohhot-Jining corridor, shortening travel time between Inner Mongolia's two largest cities to a mere 50 minutes.[51] This line reached a maximum speed of 200 km/h (124 mph) between Hohhot and Baotou. Another high-speed rail linelinking Hohhot to Zhangjiakou and the plannedBeijing-Zhangjiakou railway are due for completion in 2017, and are designed to operate at 250 km/h (155 mph). The section between Hohhot and Ulanqab (Jining) opened in August 2017; travel time between the two cities was shortened to 40 minutes.[52]
An expressway built in 1997 (then known as the Hubao Expressway) links Hohhot withBaotou. In recent years this expressway has been expanded eastwards toJining andZhangjiakou, and on toBeijing as part of theG6 Beijing–Lhasa Expressway (Jingzang Expressway). The city is on the route ofChina National Highway 110, which runs fromYinchuan toBeijing.China National Highway 209 begins in Hohhot and carries traffic southbound towards southern China, with its terminus inGuangxi. Hohhot is connected to its northern counties by the Huwu Highway, which was completed in 2006. Previously, travel to the northern counties had required lengthy navigation through mountainous terrain.
Long-distance buses connect Hohhot to outlying counties, the cities of Baotou,Wuhai, andOrdos, and other areas in Inner Mongolia.
Hohhot's major north–south thoroughfares are called roads (Lu) and its east–west thoroughfares are called streets (Jie). The largest elevated interchange is near the site of the city's Drum Tower (Gulou), after which it is named. Several major streets are named after Inner Mongolian leagues and cities; among these, Hulun Buir, Jurim (now Tongliao), Ulaanhad (Now Chifeng), Xilin Gol, and Xing'an run north–south, while Bayannur, Hailar, Ulaanqab, and Erdos run east–west.
The city's public transit system is composed of nearly one hundred bus routes and a large fleet of taxicabs, which are normally green or blue. Bus fare is 1 yuan; taxi fares begin at 8 yuan.
Hohhot lacked a professional soccer team untilShenyang Dongjin F.C. relocated to Hohhot, changing their name to Hohhot Dongjin, in 2012.[55] They played atHohhot City Stadium, which was newly built in 2007.[24] The club finished in the bottom of the league in the 2012 season and was and relegated toLeague Two. After playing half a season at Hohhot in 2013, the team relocated toLiaoning and choseBenxi City Stadium as their new home court.[56]
On 14 January 2015,Taiyuan Zhongyou Jiayi F.C. moved to Hohhot and changed their name to Nei Mongu Zhongyou F.C.[57] The team play inChina League One and chose Hohhot City Stadium as their home in 2015. The team had been first established as Shanxi Jiayi F.C. on 8 October 2011.[58]
Baita Pagoda (白塔), located in the eastern rural area nearing the airport. It was constructed during theLiao Dynasty. The airport of Hohhot is named after Baita Pagoda.
Da Zhao Temple (大召), located in the centre of Guihua town. It was constructed in theNorthern Yuan Dynasty and is the oldest Buddhist lama monastery in the city.[59]
Temple of the Five Pagodas (五塔寺), located in the eastern part of Guihua town. It was completed in theQing Dynasty, with architecture very similar to that of Indian temples.[45] On its walls there are more than 1,500 figures of Buddha.
Residence of the General (將軍衙署), located in the centre of Suiyuan town. It was the residence and office building of Suiyuan Generals of the Qing Dynasty.
Inner Mongolia Museum (内蒙古博物院). Main exhibits include dinosaur fossils, historical artifacts of nomadic peoples, and the cultural life of modern nomadic peoples.
^Chinese "qing" has traditionally been a color between "blue" and "green" in English, leading some modern sources to translateQing Cheng into English as "Green City" instead of "Blue City," including, for example,the official website of HohhotArchived 15 May 2009 at theWayback Machine.
^ab呼和浩特市2012年国民经济和社会发展统计公报.Hohhot Municipal Bureau of Statistics (in Chinese). 1 April 2013. Archived fromthe original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved17 July 2015.
^呼和浩特市社会市面蒙汉两种文字并用管理办法. National Ethnic Affairs Commission of the People's Republic of China. Archived fromthe original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved13 July 2015.
Perkins, Dorothy (1999).Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture. 1st paperback edition: 2000. New York: Roundtable Press Book.ISBN0-8160-4374-4 (pbk).
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