The earliest known traces of wine were found nearTbilisi,Georgia (c. 6000 BCE).[1][2] The earliest known winery, fromc. 4100 BCE, is theAreni-1 winery inArmenia.[3] The subsequent spread of wine culture around theMediterranean was probably due to the influence of thePhoenicians (fromc. 1000 BCE) and Greeks (fromc. 600 BCE).[4] The Phoenicians exported the wines ofByblos, which were known for their quality into Roman times.[5] Industrialized production ofwine in ancient Greece spread across the Italian peninsula and to southernGaul.[4] Theancient Romans further increased the scale of wine production and trade networks, especially in Gaul around the time of theGallic Wars.[6] The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell, due to theantioxidant effects ofsulfur dioxide, which is still used as a wine preservative.[7]
Thealtered consciousness produced by wine has beenconsidered religious since its origin. Theancient Greeks worshipedDionysus orBacchus and theAncient Romans carried on his cult.[8][9] Consumption ofritual wine, probably a certain type of sweet wine originally, was part of Jewishpractice sinceBiblical times and, as part of theeucharist commemoratingJesus'sLast Supper, becameeven more essential to the Christian Church.[10] Although Islam nominally forbade the production or consumption of wine, during itsGolden Age,alchemists such asGeberpioneered wine's distillation formedicinal and industrial purposes such as the production of perfume.[11]
Inmedieval Europe, monks grew grapes and made wine for theEucharist.[13] Monasteries expanded their land holdings over time and established vineyards in many of today's most successful wine regions.Bordeaux was a notable exception, being a purely commercial enterprise serving theDuchy of Aquitaine and by association Britain between the 12th and 15th centuries.[4]
European wine grape traditions were incorporated intoNew World wine, with colonists planting vineyards in order to celebrate the Eucharist. Vineyards were established in Mexico by 1530, Peru by the 1550s and Chile shortly afterwards. The European settlement ofSouth Africa and subsequent trade involving theDutch East India Company led to the planting of vines in 1655. British colonists attempted to establish vineyards in Virginia in 1619, but were unable to due to the nativephylloxera pest, anddowny andpowdery mildew.Jesuit Missionaries managed to grow vines in California in the 1670s, and plantings were later established in Los Angeles in the 1820s andNapa andSonoma in the 1850s.Arthur Phillip introduced vines to Australia in 1788, and viticulture was widely practised by the 1850s. The Australian missionarySamuel Marsden introduced vines to New Zealand in 1819.[14]
The 17th century saw developments which made the glasswine bottle practical, with advances in glassmaking and use ofcork stoppers andcorkscrews, allowing wine to beaged over time – hitherto impossible in the opened barrels which cups had been filled from. The subsequent centuries saw a boom in the wine trade, especially in the mid-to-late 19th century in Italy, Spain and California.[4]
TheGreat French Wine Blight began in the latter half of the 19th century, caused by an infestation of the aphid phylloxera brought over from America, whose louse stage feeds on vine roots and eventually kills the plant. Almost every vine in Europe needed to be replaced, by necessity grafted onto American rootstock which is naturally resistant to the pest. This practise continues to this day, with the exception of a small number of phylloxera-free wine regions such asSouth Australia.[15]
The subsequent decades saw further issues impact the wine trade, with the rise ofprohibitionism, political upheaval and twoworld wars, and economic depression and protectionism.[16] Theco-operative movement gained traction with winemakers during the interwar period, and theInstitut national de l'origine et de la qualité was established in 1947 to oversee the administration of France'sappellation laws, the first to create comprehensive restrictions on grape varieties, maximum yields, alcoholic strength and vinification techniques.[17] After theSecond World War, the wine market improved; all major producing countries adopted appellation laws, which increased consumer confidence, and winemakers focused on quality and marketing as consumers became more discerning and wealthy.[18] New World wines, previously dominated by a few large producers, began to fill a niche in the market, with small producers meeting the demand for high quality small-batch artisanal wines.[19] Aconsumer culture has emerged, supporting wine-related publications,wine tourism, paraphernalia such as preservation devices and storage solutions, and educational courses.[20]
The origins of wine predatewritten records, andmodern archaeology is still uncertain about the details of the first cultivation of wildgrapevines. It has been hypothesized that early humans climbed trees to pick berries, liked their sugary flavor, and then began collecting them. After a few days with fermentation setting in, juice at the bottom of any container would begin producing low-alcohol wine. According to this theory, things changed around 10,000–8000 BC with the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary style of living, which led to agriculture and wine domestication.[21]
The earliest act of cultivation appears to have been the favoring ofhermaphroditic members of theVitis vinifera species over the barren male vines and the female vines, which were dependent on a nearby male forpollination. With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sireoffspring that were consistently hermaphroditic.[22]: 17
The earliest archaeological evidence of wine fermentation found has been at sites inGeorgia (c. 6000 BC),[23][24][25][26]Hajj Firuz,West Azerbaijan province ofIran (c. 5000 BC),[27][28]Greece (c. 4500 BC), andSicily (c. 4000 BC).[29] The earliest evidence of steady production of wine has been found inArmenia (c. 4100 BC)[30][31][32][33] while the earliest evidence of a grape and rice mixed-based fermented drink was found in ancientChina (c. 7000 BC).[34][35][36][37][38] The Iranian jars, which contained a form ofretsina, usingturpentinepine resin to more effectively seal and preserve the wine, are the earliest firm evidence of wine production to date.[39][30][31][32][33] Production spread to other sites inGreater Iran andGreek Macedonia byc. 4500 BC. The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site of the remnants of crushed grapes.[40]
The oldest-knownwinery was discovered in the"Areni-1" cave inVayots Dzor,Armenia. Dated toc. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups.[41][23][42][43] Archaeologists also foundV. vinifera seeds and vines. Commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, "The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier."[43][44]
The seeds were fromVitis vinifera, a grape still used to make wine.[33] The cave remains date to about 4000 BC. This is nine hundred years before the earliest comparable wine remains, found in Egyptian tombs.[45][46]
Domesticated grapes were abundant in theNear East from the beginning of the earlyBronze Age, starting in 3200 BC. There is increasingly abundant evidence for winemaking inSumer andEgypt in the 3rd millennium BC.[47]
There are manyetiological myths told about the first cultivation of the grapevine and fermentation of wine.
TheBiblicalBook of Genesis first mentions the production of wine by Noah following theGreat Flood.
Greek mythology placed the childhood ofDionysus and his discovery ofviticulture atMount Nysa but had him teach the practice to the peoples of centralAnatolia. Because of this, he was rewarded to become a god of wine.
InPersian legend,KingJamshid banished a lady of hisharem, causing her to become despondent and contemplate suicide. Going to the king's warehouse, the woman sought out a jar marked "poison" containing the remnants of the grapes that had spoiled and were now deemed undrinkable. After drinking the fermented wine, she found her spirits lifted. She took her discovery to the king, who became so enamored of his new drink that he not only accepted the woman back but also decreed that all grapes grown inPersepolis would be devoted to winemaking.[48]
A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed withrice to producefermented drinks in ancientChina in the early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site ofJiahu,Henan, contained traces oftartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such ashawthorn, cannot be ruled out.[49][50] If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors ofrice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather thanVitis vinifera, which was introduced 6000 years later.[49][51][52][53][54]
Archaeologists have discovered production from native "mountain grapes" likeV. thunbergii[55] andV. filifolia[56] during the 1st millennium BC.[57] Production ofbeer had largely disappeared by the time of theHan dynasty, in favor of stronger drinks fermented frommillet,rice, and other grains. Although thesehuangjiu have frequently been translated as "wine", they are typically 20%ABV and considered quite distinct from grape wine (葡萄酒) within China.
During the 2nd century BC,Zhang Qian's exploration of theWestern Regions (modernXinjiang) reached theHellenisticsuccessor states ofAlexander'sempire:Dayuan,Bactria, and theIndo-Greek Kingdom. These had brought viticulture intoCentral Asia and trade permitted the first wine produced fromV. vinifera grapes to be introduced to China.[56][58][59]
Wine was imported again when trade with the west was restored under theTang dynasty, but it remained mostly imperial fare and it was not until theSong that its consumption spread among thegentry.[59]Marco Polo's 14th-century account noted the continuing preference forrice wines continuing inYuan China.[59]
Wine played an important role inancient Egyptian ceremonial life. A thriving royal winemaking industry was established in theNile Delta following the introduction of grape cultivation from theLevant to Egyptc. 3000 BC. The industry was most likely the result of trade between Egypt andCanaan during the earlyBronze Age, commencing from at least the 27th-century BCThird Dynasty, the beginning of theOld Kingdom period. Winemaking scenes on tomb walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced in the delta vineyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five distinct wines, probably all produced in the Delta, constituted a canonical set of provisions for the afterlife.
Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantlyred. Due to its resemblance to blood, much superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian culture.Shedeh, the most precious drink in ancient Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not fermented frompomegranates as previously thought.[60]Plutarch'sMoralia relates that, prior toPsammetichus I, thepharaohs did not drink wine noroffer it to the gods "thinking it to be the blood of those who had once battled against the gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had become commingled with the earth, they believed vines to have sprung". This was considered to be the reason why drunkenness "drives men out of their senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then filled with the blood of their forebears".[61]
Residue from five clayamphoras inTutankhamun's tomb, however, have been shown to be that ofwhite wine, so it was at least available to the Egyptians through trade if not produced domestically.[62]
In ancient times, theLevant region has played a vital role in the domain of winemaking. Archaeological findings, including charred grape seeds and occasionally intact berries or raisins, have been unearthed in numerous prehistoric and historic sites acrossSouthwest Asia. Having deep historical roots dating back to at least theBronze Age, winemaking in the Levant retained its importance as a significant regional industry until the decline ofByzantine rule in the 7th century CE. This prolonged history of winemaking significantly enriched the cultural and economic tapestry of ancient societies in the region, giving rise to numerous legends and beliefs intertwined with its consumption in the Mediterranean and Near East.[63][64]
The ancientPhoenicians stood among the early civilizations to acknowledge the significance of cultivating and trading wine.[65] Positioned along theeastern Mediterranean coast, the Phoenicians leveraged their location for far-reaching trade networks across the ancient world. The Phoenician use ofamphoras for transporting wine was widely adopted and Phoenician-distributed grape varieties were important in the development of the wine industries of Rome and Greece.[citation needed] The wines ofByblos were exported to Egypt during theOld Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact.[66] In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preservedPhoenician wine press was excavated at Tell el-Burak, south ofSidon inLebanon, probably devoted to making wine for trading in their colonies.[67]
The Phoenicians also establishedcolonies along the Mediterranean coasts, from modern-day Tunisia to Spain, where they introduced viticulture practices and grape cultivation. One such colony wasCarthage, a city that later developed into a maritime empire. The only Carthaginian recipe to survive thePunic Wars was one byMago forpassum, araisin wine that later became popular inRome as well.[citation needed]
Wine held a significant and favored role withinancient Israelite cuisine, serving not only as a dietary staple but also as a crucial element of Israelite cultural and religious practices. Inancient Israel, wine found its place in both everyday use and ceremonial rituals such as sacrificial libations.[68] These traditions became an integral part of Jewish customs and celebrations, upholding the enduring importance of wine withinJudaism to this very day. The abundancy of archeological remnants of facilities dedicated to the production of wine (at ancientGibeon, for example), coupled with detailed depictions of vineyard establishment and grape varieties within theHebrew Bible,[68][69] underscore the prominence of wine as the primary alcoholic choice for the ancient Israelites; The word wine appears 142 times in the Bible.[70] Within theHebrew language, a multitude of terms emerged relating to vines and the various stages of winemaking.[71]
Biblical descriptions reveal that vineyards in ancient Israel were planted either as dedicated plots or interspersed with other fruit trees, located near homes or in more remote agricultural areas.[72] Vines could be allowed to grow along the ground or trained on trellises or poles.[72] The vines were not harvested until their fourth year, in keeping withLevitical law.[72] Harvest typically fell between the grain harvest and the sowing season; Pruning occurred in the fall, and the discarded branches were often used as fuel.[72] Winemaking began with treading grapes by foot in stone winepresses, an act often associated with joy.[72] The juice was then transferred to large clay jars and stored in cool areas such as cellars or ground-floor storage rooms.[72] Winemaking also included the incorporation of spices, honey, herbs, and other ingredients.[69] Jars containing wine were sealed with clay, but a small hole was left open to release gases produced during fermentation.[72] Jewish winemaking evolved during theHellenistic period, with dried grapes producing sweeter, higher alcohol content wine that required dilution with water for consumption.[69]
Multiple kinds of aromatic wine are mentioned inTalmudic literature (that is, Jewish rabbinic texts from the early centuries AD through late antiquity). Examples includeAlontit, which was infused withbalsam;Anomalin, a blend of wine,honey, andpepper (comparable to the GreekOinomelon); andInmernon, wine spiced withmyrrh.[70] Additional examples includePsynthiton, a wine scented withwormwood, andKafrisin wine, which may derive its name fromCyprus, though it more likely refers to a wine spiced withcapers.[70]Raisin wine, smoked wine, and dark wine are also attested in Talmudic literature and ancient inscriptions from Israel.[70]
DuringLate Antiquity, when theLevant was under Byzantine control, the region established itself as a renowned center for winemaking.Ashkelon andGaza, two ancient port cities in modern-dayIsrael andGaza Strip, rose to prominence as important trade centers, facilitating extensive wine exports throughout theByzantine Empire. The writings of 4th-century CE priestJerome vividly depicted theHoly Land's landscape adorned with sprawling vineyards. The wines of this region, as described by the 6th-century CE poetCorippus, stood out for their attributes of being white, light, and sweet.[73]
Much of modern wine culture derives from the practices of theancient Greeks. The vine preceded both theMinoan andMycenaean cultures.[8][40] Many of the grapes grown in modern Greece are grown there exclusively and are similar or identical to thevarieties grown in ancient times. Indeed, the most popular modern Greek wine, a strongly aromatic white calledretsina, is thought to be a carryover from the ancient practice of lining thewine jugs with tree resin, imparting a distinct flavor to the drink.
The "Feast of the Wine" (Me-tu-wo Ne-wo) was a festival inMycenaean Greece celebrating the "Month of the New Wine".[74][75][76] Several ancient sources, such as the RomanPliny the Elder, describe the ancient Greek method of using partly dehydratedgypsum before fermentation and some type oflime after, in order to reduce the acidity of the wine. The GreekTheophrastus provides the oldest known description of this aspect of Greek winemaking.[77][78]
In Homeric mythology, wine is usually served in "mixing bowls" rather than consumed in an undiluted state.Dionysus, the Greek god of revelry and wine—frequently referred to in the works ofHomer andAesop—was sometimes given the epithetAcratophorus, "giver of unmixed wine".[79][80]Homer frequently refers to the "wine-dark sea" (οἶνωψ πόντος,oīnōps póntos): while having several words for the colorblue despite modern claims, the Greeks would simply refer to red wine's color as the sea appeared darker than their perspective of a 'blue' shade.
The earliest reference to a named wine is from the 7th-century BC lyrical poetAlcman, who praisesDénthis, a wine from the western foothills of MountTaygetus inMessenia, asanthosmías ("flowery-scented").Chian was credited as the firstred wine, although it was known to the Greeks as "black wine".[81][82]Coan was mixed with sea water and famously salty;[83] Pramnian orLesbian wine was a famous export as well.Aristotle mentionsLemnian wine, which was probably the same as the modern-dayLemnió varietal, a red wine with a bouquet oforegano andthyme. If so, this makes Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation.
For Greece, alcohol such as wine had not fully developed into the rich 'cash crop' that it would eventually become toward the peak of its reign. However, as the emphasis of viticulture increased with economic demand so did the consumption of alcohol during the years to come. The Greeks embraced the production aspect as a way to expand and create economic growth throughout the region. Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout theMediterranean, asamphoras with Greek styling and art have been found throughout the area. The Greeks may have even been involved in the first appearance of wine in ancient Egypt.[84] They introduced theV. vinifera vine to[85] and made wine in their numerous colonies in modern-day Italy,[86]Sicily,[87] southern France,[88] and Spain.[85]
Herodotus, writing about the culture of the ancientPersians (in particular, those ofPontus) writes that they were "very fond" of wine and drank it in large quantities.[89]
In theArabian Peninsula, wine was traded byAramean merchants, as the climate was not well-suited to the growing of vines. Many other types of fermented drinks, however, were produced in the 5th and 6th centuries, including date andhoney wines.
The works ofHomer,Herodotus and other historians of Ancient Greece refer to theancient Thracians' love for winemaking and consumption,[90] as early as 6000 years ago.[91] the Thracians are considered the first to worship the god of wine calledDionysus in Greek orZagreus in Thracian. Later this cult reached Ancient Greece.[92][93] Some considerThrace (modern dayBulgaria) as the motherland of wine culture.[94]
.png)
TheRoman Empire had an immense impact on the development ofviticulture andoenology. Wine was an integral part of the Roman diet and winemaking became a precise business. Virtually all of the majorwine-producing regions of Western Europe today were established during the Roman Imperial era. During the Roman Empire, social norms began to shift as the production of alcohol increased. Further evidence suggests that widespread drunkenness and true alcoholism among the Romans began in the first century BC and reached its height in the first century AD.[95] Viniculture expanded so much that by ADc. 92 theemperorDomitian was forced to pass the firstwine laws on record, banning the planting of any new vineyards inItaly and uprooting half of the vineyards in theprovinces in order to increase the production of the necessary but less profitable grain. (The measure was widely ignored but remained on the books until its 280 repeal byProbus.[96])
Winemaking technology and practices improved considerably during the time of the Roman Empire, though technologies from theBronze Age continued to be used alongside newer innovations.[97][10]Vitruvius noted how wine storage rooms were specially built facing north, "since that quarter is never subject to change but is always constant and unshifting",[98] and specialsmokehouses (fumaria) were developed to speed or mimicaging. Many grape varieties and cultivation techniques were developed. Barrels (invented by theGauls) and glass bottles (invented by theSyrians) began to compete withterracottaamphoras for storing and shipping wine.[citation needed] The Roman statesmanCato the Elder, influenced by the earlier Carthaginian writerMago, wroteDe Agricultura in 160BC, which expounded on Roman viticulture and agriculture.[22]: 61 Around 65 AD, the Roman writerColumella produced the most detailed work on Roman viticulture in his twelve-volume textDe Re Rustica. Columella's work is one of the earliest to detailtrellis systems for raising vines off the ground. Columella advocated the use of stakes versus the previously accepted practice oftraining vines to grow up alongtree trunks. The benefits of using stakes over trees was largely to minimize the dangers associated with climbing trees, which was necessary to prune the densefoliage in order to give the vines sunlight, and later to harvest them.[22]: 68
The Romans also created a precursor to today's appellation systems, as certain regions gained reputations for their fine wines. The most famous was the whiteFalernian from theLatian–Campanian border, principally because of its high (~15%) alcohol content. The Romans recognized three appellations:Caucinian Falernian from the highest slopes,Faustian Falernian from the center (named for its one-time ownerFaustus Cornelius Sulla, son of thedictator), and generic Falernian from the lower slopes and plain. The esteemed vintages grew in value as they aged, and each region produced different varieties as well: dry, sweet, and light. Other famous wines were the sweetAlban from theAlban Hills and theCaecuban beloved byHorace and extirpated byNero. Pliny cautioned that such 'first-growth' wines not be smoked in afumarium like lesser vintages.[22]: 72 Pliny and others also namedVinum Hadrianum as one of the most rated wines, along with Praetutian from Ancona on the Adriatic, Mamertine from Messina in Sicily, Rhaetic from Verona, and a few others.[99]
Wine, perhaps mixed with herbs and minerals, was assumed to serve medicinal purposes. During Roman times, the upper classes might dissolvepearls in wine for better health.Cleopatra created her own legend by promisingAntony she would "drink the value of a province" in one cup of wine, after which she drank an expensive pearl with a cup of the beverage.[78]Pliny relates that, after the ascension ofAugustus,Setinum became the imperial wine because it did not cause him indigestion.[100] When theWestern Roman Empire fell during the 5th century, Europe entered a period of invasions and social turmoil, with theRoman Catholic Church as the only stable social structure. Through the Church, grape growing and winemaking technology, essential for the Mass, were preserved.[101]
Over the course of the later Empire, wine production gradually shifted to the east as Roman infrastructure and influence in the western regions gradually diminished. Production in Asia Minor, the Aegean and the Near East flourished through Late Antiquity and the Byzantine era.[10]
Theoldest surviving urn of wine in liquid state was found in 2019 in a Roman mausoleum in Carmona, southern Spain, and is about 2000 years old.[102] The second oldest surviving bottle still containing liquid wine is theSpeyer wine bottle, that belonged to a Roman nobleman and it is dated at 325 or 350 AD.[103][104]
The advent ofIslam andsubsequent Muslim conquests in the 7th and 8th centuries brought many territories under Muslim control. Alcoholic drinks were prohibited by law, but the production of alcohol, wine in particular, seems to have thrived.[105] Wine was a subject for many poets, even under Islamic rule, and manykhalifas used to drink alcoholic beverages during their social and private meetings.Jews in Egypt leased vineyards from theFatimid andMamluk governments, produced wine for sacramental and medicinal use, and traded wine throughout theEastern Mediterranean.
Christian monasteries in theLevant and Iraq often cultivated grapevines; they then distributed their vintages in taverns located on monastery grounds.Zoroastrians in Persia and Central Asia also engaged in the production of wine. Though not much is known about their wine trade, they did become known for their taverns. Wine in general found an industrial use in the medieval Middle East asfeedstock after advances indistillation byMuslimalchemists allowed for the production of relatively pureethanol, which was used in theperfume industry. Wine was also for the first time distilled intobrandy during this period.
In the Levant, theMuslim conquest of the Levant suppressed winemaking after centuries of regional prominence, and the 13th-century Mamluk conquest resulted in its complete prohibition.[63]
Since wine was necessary for the celebration of theCatholic Mass, assuring a supply was crucial.[citation needed] TheBenedictine monks became one of the largest producers of wine in Italy and France, as did theCistercians, after their founding in 1098, who planted vineyards across Europe, includingClos de Vougeot andSteinberg.[106]: 10 Other orders, such as theCarthusians, theTemplars, and theCarmelites, are also notable both historically and in modern times as wine producers. In 1435 Count John IV ofKatzenelnbogen, a wealthy member of the high nobility of theHoly Roman Empire from nearFrankfurt, was the first to plantRiesling, the most important German grape. The nearby winemaking monks made it into an industry, producing enough wine to ship all over Europe for secular use.[citation needed]
Bordeaux was the only important wine region without close connections to the Church. Due to the political ties between theDuchy of Aquitaine and England between 1152 and 1453, its output was dedicated to meeting the demands of the British market. This trade was overseen by theWorshipful Company of Vintners after its establishment in 1363.[106]: 11
In northern Europe the weather and climate posed difficulties for grape cultivation, so certain species were selected that better suited the environment. Until the 13th century most vineyards grew white varieties of grape, which are more resistant to the damp and cold climates. By the end of the 14th century, however, some red grape varieties had been introduced, such asPinot Noir andGamay inBurgundy.[107]: 169
During this period wine was the common drink of all social classes in the south of Europe, where grapes were cultivated. In the north and east, where fewer grapes were grown,beer was the usual beverage of most of the population. Wine was exported to the northern regions, but because of its relatively high expense and scarcity it was seldom consumed by the lower classes.[107]: 176–177 A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes formeads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for spicing and masking flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount ofhoney. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and thus drunk quite young.[citation needed]
The publication ofLiber de Vinis byArnaldus de Villa Nova in the 13th century established the use of wine in medicine: "he saw it as being particularly useful as an antiseptic, a restorative, and for the preparation of poultices".[107]: 179 Another application of wine at the time was the use of snake-stones (bandedagate resembling the figural rings on a snake) dissolved in wine as a remedy for snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations.[78]
Following the voyages of Columbus, grape culture and wine making were transported from the Old World to the New. European grape varieties were first brought to what is now Mexico by the first Spanishconquistadors to provide the necessities of the CatholicHoly Eucharist. Planted at Spanishmissions, one variety came to be known as theMission grape and is still planted today in small amounts. Spanish missionaries also took viticulture to Chile and Argentina in the mid-16th century and to Baja California in the 18th.[108] Succeeding waves of immigrants, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, imported French, Italian and GermanV. vinifera grapes, although wine from those native to the Americas (whose flavors can be distinctly different) is also produced. Mexico became the most important wine producer starting in the 16th century, to the extent that its output began to affect Spanish commercial production. In this competitive climate, the Spanish king sent an executive order to halt Mexico's production of wines and the planting of vineyards.
During the devastating phylloxera blight in late 19th-century Europe, it was found that Native American vines were immune to the pest.French-American hybrid grapes were developed and saw some use in Europe, but more important was the practice of grafting European grapevines to American rootstocks to protect vineyards from the insect. The practice continues to this day wherever phylloxera is present.
The prime wine-growing regions of South America were established in the foothills of the Andes Mountains inArgentina andChile. InCalifornia, the centre of viticulture shifted from the southern missions to the Central Valley and the northern counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Mendocino.[108] Today, wine in the Americas is still often associated with these regions, all of which produce a wide variety of wines, from inexpensive jug wines to high-quality varietals and proprietary blends. Most of the wine production in the Americas is based on Old World grape varieties, and wine-growing regions there have often "adopted" grapes that have become particularly closely identified with them. California'sZinfandel (from Croatia and Southern Italy), Argentina'sMalbec, and Chile'sCarmenère (both from France) are well-known examples.
Until the latter half of the 20th century, American wine was generally viewed as inferior to that of Europe. However, with the surprisingly favorable American showing at theParis Wine tasting of 1976, New World wine began to garner respect in the land of wine's origins.
In the late 19th century, thephylloxera louse brought widespread destruction to grapevines, wine production, and those whose livelihoods depended on them; far-reaching repercussions included the loss of many indigenous varieties. Lessons learned from the infestation led to the positive transformation of Europe's wine industry. Bad vineyards were uprooted and their land turned to better uses. Some of France's bestbutter andcheese, for example, is now made from cows that graze onCharentais soil, which was previously covered with vines.Cuvées were also standardized, important in creating certain wines as they are known today; Champagne and Bordeaux finally achieved the grape mixes that now define them. In theBalkans, where phylloxera had had little impact, the local varieties survived. However, the uneven transition from Ottoman rule has meant only gradual transformation in many vineyards. It is only in recent times that local varieties have gained recognition beyond "mass-market" wines likeretsina.
In the context of wine,Australia,New Zealand,South Africa and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers. Wine production began in theCape Province of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia'sFirst Fleet (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption, and South Africa exported to the Kings of Europe. However, with the increase in mechanization and scientific advances in winemaking, these countries became known for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century.
In East Asia, the first modern wine industry wasJapanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe. The earliest wine producing companies in Japan areMercian (established in 1877) andSuntory (established in 1909).[106]: 386
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link)Wines andwinemaking | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| National | |
|---|---|
| Other | |
