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Thehistory of the firearm begins in 10th-centuryChina, when tubes containinggunpowder projectiles were mounted onspears to make portablefire lances.[1] Over the following centuries, the design evolved into various types, including portable firearms such asflintlocks andblunderbusses, andfixed cannons, and by the 15th century the technology had spread through all ofEurasia. Firearms were instrumental in the fall of theByzantine Empire and the establishment of European colonization in theAmericas,Africa, andOceania. The 19th and 20th centuries saw an acceleration in this evolution, with the introduction of themagazine,belt-fed weapons, metalcartridges,rifled barrels, andautomatic firearms, includingmachine guns.
Older firearms typically usedblack powder as apropellant, but modern firearms usesmokeless powder or other propellants.
There are reports of some sort ofincendiarychemical weapon, theGreek fire, used by theEastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) from the 7th through the 14th centuries, which may have been delivered throughgrenades and/or by some kind of flamethrower. However, its nature is still being debated, and it does not seem related to ancient Chinese or modern firearms.
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The first firearms were invented in China, following the invention ofgunpowder. The earliest known depiction of a gunpowder weapon is the illustration of afire lance on a mid-10th century silk banner fromDunhuang.[2] The fire lance was a tube, made of paper andbamboo,[3] filled with black-powder and attached to the end of a spear, which was used as aflamethrower.Shrapnel orpellets were sometimes placed in the barrel so that they would fly out together with the flames.[3][4] TheDe'an Shoucheng Lu, an account of thesiege of De'an in 1132 during theJin–Song Wars, records thatSong forces used fire-lances against theJurchen.[5]
The earliest depiction of a gun is a sculpture from a cave inSichuan dating to the 12th century. It depicts a Chinese figure carrying a vase-shapedbombard with flames and a cannonball emerging from it.[6][7]
The proportion ofsaltpeter in the propellant was increased to maximize its power.[4] To better withstand that power, fire lance barrels were made of metal,[3] At the same time, the shrapnel was replaced by projectiles whose size and shape filled the barrel more completely.[4] The result was thehand cannon, with metal barrel, high-nitrate gunpowder, and a properly sized projectile.[8][9]
The oldest surviving firearm is theHeilongjiang hand cannon dated to 1288, which was discovered in modern-dayAcheng District where theHistory of Yuan records that battles were fought. Li Ting, a military commander ofJurchen descent, led foot soldiers armed with hand cannons to suppress the rebellion of theEastern Christian MongolPrince Nayan.[10]
Kublai Khan's mostly failedinvasion of Vietnam andof Java (1258–1288) may have spread the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapons toSoutheast Asia. There is evidence of that knowledge in theNusantara archipelago. A stele inscription byTrương Hán Siêu dated to 1312 recorded guns and shots ("súng đạn") among the loots that the Vietnamese obtained from the Chams in a campaign.[11] It indicates that both polities had knowledge of guns and even employed them well before that date.
Ahmad Y. al-Hassan claimed that theBattle of Ain Jalut in 1260 pitted theBahri Mamluks against theMongol Empire. "The first cannon in history" used gunpowder almost identical with the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder.[12][13] However, Iqtidar Alam Khan argued that it was the invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to theIslamic world[14] and cites Mamluk antagonism towards early riflemen as an example of how gunpowder weapons were not always accepted.[15]
Firearms appeared in theMiddle East between the late 13th[16][17][18] and early 14th century.[19]
The first references to what may have beenarquebuses (Ottoman Turkish:tüfek) made by theJanissary corps of theOttoman military date them to between 1394 and 1465.[20] However, by as late as 1444, it is unclear whether these were truly arquebuses or rather small cannons. The fact that they were listed separately from cannons in mid-15th century inventories suggests that they were handheld firearms.[21]
Themusket first appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.[22] In theShen Qi Pu (神器譜), a firearms manual written in 1598, Chinese firearm designer and writer Zhao Shi Zhen described Turkish muskets as superior to European muskets.[23] At some point before 1598, Turks developed a pivotingmatchlock mechanism that was later modified by Zhao into the first mechanism usingrack and pinion.
One major obstacle preventing matchlock guns from large-scale adoption was complaints that strong wind and rain could either blow away or ruin priming powder placed in the flash pan. Mentioned inShen Qi Pu, Zhao later developed the "Xuanyuanarquebus" (Chinese:軒轅銃,romanized: Xuānyuan-chòng, named for theYellow Emperor), which used a novel rack-and-pinion mechanism. This firing mechanism was connected to both the serpentine and flash pan cover and designed so that whenever the trigger is pulled, the serpentine was lowered at the same time as flash pan cover opened, minimizing the priming powder's exposure to open air and thus reducing the risk of priming powder being blown away by strong wind or spoiled by rain. The combination of a trigger-operated flash pan cover and small copper rain cover mounted on a pendulum was considered a more sophisticated approach to the Japanese solution of covering the entire firing mechanism with a lacquered box, which could hamper aiming, shooting and reloading. The Chinese military bookWubei Zhi (1621) describes Turkish muskets that used similar rack and pinion mechanisms, which were not known to have been used in European firearms at the time.[24]
A pole gun, thebedil tombak, was recorded inJava in 1413,[25][26]: 245 The knowledge of making "true" firearms came after the middle of the 15th century. It was probably brought byArab traders no earlier than 1460.[27]: 23 Before the arrival of the Portuguese in Southeast Asia, primitive firearms in the form of theJava arquebus was already present.[28]
The technology further improved after thePortuguese capture of Malacca (1511).[29] Starting in 1513, German, Bohemian and Turkish gun-making traditions merged.[30]: 39–41 This resulted in theIndo-Portuguese tradition of making matchlocks. Indian craftsmen modified the design by introducing a short, almost pistol-like buttstock held against the cheek, not the shoulder, when aiming. They reduced the caliber and made the gun lighter and more balanced. The Portuguese, who conducted much fighting aboard ships and rivercraft, valued a more compact gun, and thus this approach became popular.[31]: 41 [32] Malay gun founders, regarded to be on the same level as German gunsmiths[by whom?], quickly adapted these new firearms and birthed a new type of arquebus, theistinggar.[33]: 385
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The first recorded use of firearms in South Asia was at the Battle of Adoni in 1368. In theDeccans, theBahmani sultanate led byMohammed Shah I used a train ofartillery against theVijayanagara Empire underHarihara II.[34] Their use by Sultan Mohammed Shah ofGujarat in the fifteenth century was recorded.[35] When thePortuguese reached India in 1498, they brought with them firearms, among them thematchlockmusket andman-of-war (ships) armed with cannons. Portuguese travelers observed that firearms there were already in use.[36] Peasants of theGangetic plains used cheap handguns made by local blacksmiths.Travancore,Kashmir,Rajasthan,Punjab andSindh hosted sites of arms manufacture.[37] In the early 16th century,Zamorin of Calicut, had begun to emulate the Portuguese and began to arm his ships with naval gun pieces, combining local and imported technology.[38]
In the 16th century, Central Asian princeBabur, the firstMughal emperor, brought Turkish firearms, which Mughal adversaries used against theDelhi Sultanate in theFirst Battle of Panipat, which the Rajputs and the Afghans in turn adopted.[37] Across the 16th and 17th century, firearms played an important role in the Mughal military. Known as thetufang, Mughal emperorAkbar introduced many improvements in the matchlock.[39]
Firearms were also developed by theMarathas, although weaker than their counterparts such as the Mughals andMysore.Balaji Baji Rao organised the arm in professional lines andMadhavji Sindhia established a more efficient gun foundry under the supervision of European gun makers. During the 18th century,Tipu Sultan was notable for effective use of guns, mortar, rockets and howitzers; theNizam of Hyderabad manufactured guns with the help of French officers, while Sikhs underMaharaja Ranjit Singh pioneered the development of horse-artillery on the same lines as that of theEast India Company.[35][38]
One theory of how gunpowder came toEurope is via theSilk Road; another holds that it arrived during theMongol invasion in the first half of the 13th century.[40][41] English Privy Wardrobe accounts listribaldis, a type of cannon, in the 1340s, andsiege guns were used by the English at theSiege of Calais (1346–47).[42]
The first mention of firearms in Russia is found in theSofiiskii vremennikchronicle, which stated that during the 1382 defense ofMoscow from Tokhtamysh'sGolden Horde, Muscovites used firearms calledtyufyaki (Russian:тюфяки), which were ofEastern origin; this word derives fromTurkictüfäk "gun".[43][44]
Around the late 14th century in Italy, smaller, portablehand-cannons orschioppi were developed, creating in effect the firstsmoothbore personal firearm. The earliest surviving firearm in Europe was found inOtepää,Estonia. It dates to at least 1396.[45]
Firearms evolved during the1419-1434 Hussite Wars. TheHussite army consisted mostly of civilian militia who lacked the skill, experience and often weapons and armor comparable to that of the professional Crusader invaders that they faced. Gradually, Hussites pioneered battlefield use of firearms together withwar wagons. Firearms were employed in auxiliary roles in 1419–1421. The first use of firearms as primary offensive weapons came in the 1421Battle of Kutná Hora. From this moment on, firearms formed the core of Hussite tactics as well as a staple ofCzech civilian possession. The Hussite militia used a number of handheld firearms, includingpíšťala [cs], which later found its way through German and French into English as the termpistol,[46]hákovnice [cs], an infantry weapon heavier thanpíšťala, and yet heaviertarasnic (fauconneau). For artillery, Hussites used theCzech:houfnice, which gave rise to the English term, "howitzer" (houf meaningcrowd for its intended use of shooting stone and iron shot against massed enemy forces),[47][48][49]bombarda (mortar) anddělo (cannon).[50] The first English source about handheld firearms discussed hand cannons in 1473.[51]In the late 15th century, theOttoman Empire used firearms as part of its regular infantry. The earliest type of Turkish hand cannons are calledŞakaloz, after the Hungarian hand cannonSzakállas puska in the 15th century.[52]
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During theearly modern age, hand-held cannons evolved into the matchlock,wheellock,doglock, andflintlockrifle, respectively, as ignition devices, matchlocks, wheellocks,snaplock, flintlocks andpercussion caps were used in turn. This was then followed by thebreech loader and finally theautomatic weapon. Thepaper cartridge was introduced sometime before 1586, and thebayonet came to use in 16th century France.Hand grenades, thrown bygrenadiers, appeared around the same time.
Early cartridge firearms had to be cocked and caught by the "sear", which holds the hammer back, before each shot. Pulling the trigger allows the hammer or striker to fly forward, striking the "firing pin," which then strikes the "primer," igniting an impact-sensitive chemical compound (historically, first fulminate of mercury, then potassium chlorate, nowlead styphnate) which shoots a flame through the "flash hole" into the cartridge's propellant chamber, igniting the propellant.
TheSpringfield Armory inSpringfield, Massachusetts became important during the 1850s, when it debuted theSpringfield rifle.[53] Springfield rifles were among the firstbreech-loading rifles, starting production in 1865. By that time, metallurgy had developed sufficiently so that brass could be made into ammunition cases. Previously, each round was custom-made as needed: the shooter poured loose powder down the barrel, used leather or cloth forwadding if time allowed, selected a suitable projectile (lead ball, rocks, arrow, or nails), then seated the projectile on top of the powder charge by means of aramrod. Performance was erratic. Fixed ammunition combined a primer, the pre-measured charge, and the projectile in a water-resistant brass cartridge case. Most importantly, the soft brass expanded under pressure of the gas to seal the rear end of the barrel, which prevented the shooter from being maimed by escaping high-pressure gas when they pulled the trigger.
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A repeating firearm, ("repeater") can hold multiplecartridges and be fired multiple times before reloading. Repeaters employ a variety of mechanisms for readying a bullet for firing. This typically involves ejecting a used cartridge and moving a new one into the firing chamber. Mechanisms includebolt-action,lever-action,slide-action,semi-automatic, andfully-automatic firearms. Automatic weapons cycle a new round into the firing chamber without the help of the shooter. Semi-automatics fire one round per trigger pull. Full automatics fire multiple rounds per pull.
Revolvers hold cartridges in a rotating cylinder, which serves as both amagazine and firing chamber. They were the earliest repeaters. Revolving rifles were sometimes called "turret guns". Single action revolvers were fired after manually cocking the hammer for each shot. This design dates from at least 1836, with the introduction of theColt Paterson. Double-action revolvers emerged around the same time. They can be fired after cocking the hammer, but also by pulling the trigger without first cocking it.Double-action only or DAO revolvers can be fired only using the trigger.
TheSpringfield Model 1892–99 was used during theSpanish–American War.
The first successful self-loader was theGatling gun, a hand-cranked revolver. It was invented byRichard Jordan Gatling and fielded by the Union forces during theAmerican Civil War. Self-loaders use energy to reload. The world's first machine gun was theMaxim gun, developed by British inventor SirHiram Maxim in 1884.
The world's first successful self-loading rifle was theMondragón rifle, designed in 1908 by Mexican generalManuel Mondragón. It was the first self-loading firearm able to be operated by one person. It was used during theMexican Revolution (Mexican Army) andWorld War I (Imperial German Flying Corps).
The firstsubmachine gun, which fires pistol cartridges and can be used by one soldier, was theMP18.1, invented byTheodor Bergmann. It was introduced in 1918 by theGerman Army as the primary weapon of theStosstruppen (assault groups specialized in trench combat). During World War II well-crafted versions such as theThompson were replaced by mass-produced alternatives, such as theM3.
The first successfulassault rifle was theStG 44, introduced duringWorld War II by the Germans. It was the first firearm to occupy the gap between rifles and submachine guns. The assault rifle was more powerful and had longer range than the submachine gun, but was less powerful and shorter range than standard rifles. It used intermediate size rounds as well and offered select-fire option (switch from full automatic to semi-automatic). TheAK-47, commonly known as the "Kalashnikov", is the most manufactured assault rifle.[54]
Thebattle rifle was a select-fire rifle that retained the long range of theM1 Garand.NATO members adopted battle rifles of their own. In practice, the powerful cartridge of the battle rifle proved to be difficult to control during fully automatic fire.
The first-hand cannon appeared during the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut between the Egyptians and Mongols in the Middle East.
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)Known to the Arabs as midfa, was the ancestor of all subsequent forms of cannon. Materials evolved from bamboo to wood to iron quickly enough for the Egyptian Mamelukes to employ the weapon against the Mongols at the battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which ended the Mongol advance into the Mediterranean world.
Initially the Janissaries were equipped with bows, crossbows, and javelins. In the first half of the 15th century, they began to use matchlock arquebuses