This articleis missing information about large parts of the U.S. Senate's 20th and 21st-century history. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on thetalk page.(January 2021)
The Senate was conceived as a check on theHouse of Representatives, which was popularly elected. Therefore in the Senate, each state, regardless of size or population, are equally represented.[2]
The final structure of the Senate emerged from theConnecticut Compromise, a closely contested 5–4 vote, that granted smaller states equal representation regardless of population size in the Senate.[3]
The Congress of theUnited States, established by theU.S. Constitution, met for the first time at New York City’sFederal Hall on March 4, 1789. The Senate originally met in secret, in a room that allowed no spectators. For five years, no notes were published on its proceedings.[4]
A significant procedural issue of the early Senate was what role thevice president, as thepresident of the Senate, should have. The first vice president was allowed to craft legislation and participate in debates, but those rights were taken away relatively quickly.John Adams was noted miss very few sessions, but later vice presidents normalized more infrequent Senate visits. Although thefounding fathers intended the Senate to be the slower legislative body, in the early years of the Republic, it was the House that took its time passing legislation.Alexander Hamilton'sBank of the United States andAssumption Bill (he was thenthe Treasury Secretary), both of which were controversial, easily passed the Senate, only to meet opposition from the House.[5]
This House is a sanctuary; a citadel of law, of order, and of liberty; and it is here–in this exalted refuge; here if anywhere, will resistance be made to the storms of political phrensy and the silent arts of corruption.[8]
In the following decades, the Senate played an increasingly visible role in national political debates.John C. Calhoun,Daniel Webster,Thomas Hart Benton,Stephen A. Douglas, andHenry Clay played roles in national policy discussions.Sir Henry Maine called the Senate "the only thoroughly successful institution which has been established since the tide of modern democracy began to run."William Ewart Gladstone said the Senate was "the most remarkable of all the inventions of modern politics".[9]
TheWebster–Hayne debate of January 1830 is often cited as a significant moment in Senate history, pitting the sectional interests of Daniel Webster'sNew England against Robert Y. Hayne's South.[10]
Debates over slavery were a central issue in the Senate during the pre-Civil War decades, with the House consistently opposed to slavery. Since the banning ofslavery north of theMason–Dixon line, effort went into maintaining equal numbers of slave and free states to preserve the southern states' ability to preserve slavery.[11] In theMissouri Compromise of 1820, brokered byHenry Clay,Maine was admitted to the Union as a free state to counterbalanceMissouri. TheCompromise of 1850, brokered by Henry Clay andStephen Douglas, may have also helped postpone theCivil War.[12] The 1856Caning of Charles Sumner is often cited to show how intense the debate became.
In the decades following theCivil War, the Senate addressed major national questions such as reconstruction and monetary policy. During theThird Party System, state legislatures—dominated by strong party organizations—determined Senate elections, ensuring that party leaders and influential figures could secure seats.[13] The era also coincided with rapid industrial expansion, when entrepreneurs and financiers gained prestige comparable to that of military leaders, and several entered the Senate.[14]
In 1870,Hiram Revels of Mississippi became the firstAfrican American senator. Chosen by state Republicans under pressure from Black legislators, Revels filled a short unexpired term and was seated after a 48–8 Senate vote following objections from some members. Revels used his brief tenure to advocate for civil rights and protest racial segregation.[15] Four years later, Mississippi’s legislature appointedBlanche Bruce, who served a full term from 1875 to 1881 and presided over the Senate in 1879. He was the last African American senator until 1967.[16]
Between 1871 and 1898, the Senate rejected or stalled numerous treaties, including reciprocal trade agreements and proposals to annex theDominican Republic and theDanish West Indies. It also blocked an arbitration treaty with Britain and demanded renegotiation ofThe Panama Canal treaty. In 1898, the Senate came close to rejecting the treaty that ended theSpanish–American War.[17]
In 1907,Charles Curtis of Kansas became the firstNative American senator. A registered member of theKaw Nation with Osage and Potawatomi heritage, Curtis chaired theIndian Affairs Committee. He promotedassimilationist policies and sponsored legislation that limited tribal sovereignty, reflecting the federal government’s prevailing approach to Native American affairs at the time.[19]
The Senate underwent significant institutional changes during the presidency ofWoodrow Wilson, beginning with the ratification of theSeventeenth Amendment in 1913. The amendment established direct election of senators by popular vote, replacing the system of selection by state legislatures.[20]
Another major reform involved the limitation of thefilibuster. Although the filibuster had existed since the early Republic, it was rarely used before the 20th century. DuringWorld War I, a group of fewer than 20 senators, led byWilliam Jennings Bryan, blocked legislation to arm merchant ships. In response, the Senate adopted the cloture rule in 1917, allowing debate to be ended by a two-thirds vote. President Wilson criticized the obstructionists as a “group of willful men”.[21]
The post ofSenate Majority Leader was also created during this period. Prior to its establishment, Senate leadership was generally exercised by influential committee chairs or senior statesmen such asDaniel Webster orNelson Aldrich. Initially, the new position carried little authority beyond priority of recognition from the presiding officer. Divisions within the Democratic Party—between northern liberals and southern conservatives—further limited the effectiveness of its leaders.[22]
On November 21, 1922,Rebecca Felton of Georgia became the first woman to serve in the Senate, though only for one day.[23] In 1928,Octaviano Larrazolo of New Mexico became the first Latino senator, filling a three-month unexpired term.[24]
From 1923 to 1937,Joseph T. Robinson of Arkansas served as Democratic leader of the Senate. He supportedCalvin Coolidge andHerbert Hoover on measures such as the Muscle Shoals project and the Hoover Tariff, while later pushing through much of Franklin D. Roosevelt’sNew Deal legislation. His loyalty was so pronounced that humoristWill Rogers quipped, “Congress doesn’t pass legislation any more, they just wave at the bills as they go by”.[25]
In 1932,Hattie Caraway of Arkansas became the first woman elected to the Senate. Initially appointed after her husband’s death, she won re-election twice in her own right.[26] In 1935,Dennis Chávez of New Mexico became the first Latino elected to a full Senate term.[27]
In 1937, the Senate rejected Roosevelt’s proposed“court-packing” plan and called for reduced federal deficits, demonstrating its ability to counter presidential initiatives.[28]
That same year, the Senate strengthened the power of the majority leader by adopting the rule of first recognition, which gave the leader priority to be recognized by the presiding officer. This reform significantly increased the majority leader’s ability to shape the legislative agenda.[29]
The early 1950s saw one of the Senate’s most controversial episodes with Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy’s investigations into alleged communists. After several years of influence, McCarthy’s power declined as his claims were increasingly unsupported and extended to questioning the leadership of the United States Army. The Senate formally censured McCarthy in 1954.[30]
During his tenure as Senate Majority Leader,Lyndon B. Johnson gained increased authority over committee assignments. Johnson, a Southerner and former member of the Senate’s conservativeSouthern caucus, leveraged this influence both as Majority Leader and later as President to advance civil rights legislation previously blocked by powerful Southern Democrats.[31]
In 1959,Hiram Fong of Hawaii became the firstAsian-American senator. He advocated for civil rights and reforms to expand voting access for Asian Americans.[32]
In 1966,Edward W. Brooke of Massachusetts became the firstAfrican American popularly elected to the Senate since the Reconstruction era. A liberal Republican, Brooke served two terms and promoted civil rights and social reform.[33]
In 1971, Paulette Desell was appointed as the Senate’s first female page by Senator Jacob K. Javits.[34]
In 1992,Carol Moseley Braun of Illinois became the first African American woman elected to the Senate. She served one term as a Democrat, focusing on education reform and gun control.[35]
In 2017,Catherine Cortez Masto of Nevada became the first Latina and Mexican-American woman senator.[38]
In the 119th Congress (2025), two African American women,Lisa Blunt Rochester (Delaware) andAngela Alsobrooks (Maryland), served simultaneously in the Senate for the first time, doubling the total number of Black women ever elected to the chamber. That same cycle marked additional milestones:Andy Kim became New Jersey’s first Asian American and the firstKorean American senator, whileSarah McBride became the first openly transgender person elected to the U.S. Congress, serving in the House.[39]
^Ref, Cross (2019),"Book Chapter Submission Validation Test",Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved2025-09-30
^Ref, Cross (2019),"Book Chapter Submission Validation Test",Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved2025-09-30
^Ref, Cross (2019),"Book Chapter Submission Validation Test",Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved2025-09-30
^Ref, Cross (2019),"Book Chapter Submission Validation Test",Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved2025-09-30
^Ref, Cross (2019),"Book Chapter Submission Validation Test",Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved2025-09-30
^Ref, Cross (2019),"Book Chapter Submission Validation Test",Book Title Submission Validation Test, Somewhere, MA: The Test Institution, pp. 87–107, retrieved2025-09-30
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