Thehistory of the English monarchy covers the reigns ofEnglish kings and queens from the 9th century to 1707. The English monarchy traces its origins to thepetty kingdoms ofAnglo-Saxon England, which consolidated into theKingdom of England by the 10th century. Anglo-Saxon England had anelective monarchy, but this was replaced byprimogeniture after theNorman Conquest in 1066. TheNorman andPlantagenet dynasties expanded their authority throughout theBritish Isles, creating theLordship of Ireland in 1177 and conqueringWales in 1283.
The monarchy's gradual evolution into aconstitutional andceremonial monarchy is a major theme in thehistorical development of theBritish constitution.[1] In 1215,King John agreed to limit his own powers over his subjects according to the terms ofMagna Carta. To gain the consent of the political community, English kings began summoningParliaments to approve taxation and to enact statutes. Gradually, Parliament's authority expanded at the expense of royal power.
TheCrown of Ireland Act 1542 granted English monarchs the titleKing of Ireland. In 1603, the childlessElizabeth I was succeeded byJames VI of Scotland, known as James I in England. Under theUnion of the Crowns, England and theKingdom of Scotland were ruled by a single sovereign while remaining separate nations. For the history of theBritish monarchy after 1603, seeHistory of the monarchy of the United Kingdom.
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The origins of the English monarchy lie in theAnglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. In the 7th century, theAnglo-Saxons consolidated into seven kingdoms known as theHeptarchy. At certain times, one king was strong enough to claim the titlebretwalda (Old English for "over-king"). In the 9th and 10th centuries, thekings of Wessex united the separate kingdoms into a singleKingdom of England.[3]
In theory, all governing authority resided with the king. He alone could makeAnglo-Saxon law, mint coins, levy taxes, raise thefyrd, or make foreign policy. In reality, kings needed the support of theEnglish church and thenobility to rule.[4] A monarch's rule was not legitimate unless he receivedcoronation by the church. Coronationconsecrated a king, giving himpriest-like qualities and divine protection. The coronation ofEdgar the Peaceful (r. 959–975) served as a model for futureBritish coronations.[5][6]
The king governed in consultation with thewitan, the council ofbishops,ealdormen, andthegns he chose to advise him.[7] The witan also elected new kings from among male royal family members (æthelings).Primogeniture was not the definitive rule governing succession, so strong candidates replaced weak ones.[8]
While the capital was atWinchester, the king traveled with hisitinerant court from oneroyal vill to another as they collectedfood rent and heard petitions. The king's income came from revenue from the royaldemesne (now known as theCrown Estate), judicial fines, and taxation of trade. Thegeld (land tax) was also an essential source of revenue.[9]
After 865,Viking invaders conquered all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except forWessex, which survived due to the leadership ofAlfred the Great (r. 871–899). Alfred absorbedKent and westernMercia and was the first to style himself "king of the Anglo-Saxons".[10][11] Alfred's son,Edward the Elder (r. 899–924), continued to recover and consolidate control over the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Only theKingdom of York andNorthumbria remained in Viking hands at his death. Edward's sons completed the reconquest of these holdouts.[12]
Edward's sonÆthelstan (r. 924–939) first used the title "king of the English" and is considered the founder of the English monarchy.[13] He died childless, and his younger half-brotherEdmund I (r. 939–946) succeeded him. After Edmund's murder, his two young sons were passed over in favor of their uncle,Eadred (r. 946–955). He never married and raised his nephews as his heirs. The eldest,Eadwig (r. 955–959), succeeded his uncle, but the younger brotherEdgar (r. 959–975) was soon declared king of Mercia and theDanelaw. Eadwig's death prevented civil war, and Edgar the Peaceful became the undisputed king of all England in 959.[14]
Edgar was succeeded by his eldest son,Edward the Martyr (r. 975–978). His younger brother,Æthelred the Unready (r. 978–1016), had him murdered and then became king. TheDanes began raiding England in the 990s, and Æthelred resorted to buying them off with ever more expensive payments ofDanegeld. Æthelred's marriage toEmma of Normandy deprived the Danes of a place to shelter before crossing theChannel. Still, it did not preventSwein Forkbeard, king of Denmark, from conquering England in 1013.[15]
After Swein died in 1014, the English invited Æthelred to return from exile if he agreed to address complaints against his earlier rule, including high taxes, extortion, and theenslavement of free men. TheAnglo-Saxon Chronicle records this agreement, which historianDavid Starkey called "the first constitutional settlement in English history".[16] Æthelred died in 1016, and his sonEdmund Ironside became king. Swein's sonCnut invaded England and defeated Edmund at theBattle of Assandun. Afterward, the two divided England, with Edmund ruling Wessex and Cnut taking the rest.[17]
After Ironside's death,Cnut (r. 1016–1035) became king of all England and quickly married Æthelred's widow, Emma of Normandy. Cnut united England with the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway in what historians call theNorth Sea Empire. Because Cnut was not in England for much of his reign, he divided England into four parts (Wessex,East Anglia,Mercia, andNorthumbria). He appointed trustedearls to rule each region. The creation of large earldoms covering multipleshires necessitated the office ofsheriff or "shirereeve". The sheriff was the king's direct representative in the shire. He oversaw theshire court and collected taxes and royal estate dues.[18]
EarlGodwin of Wessex was the strongest earl and Cnut'schief minister. When Cnut died in 1035, rival sons contended for the throne: Emma's sonHarthacnut (then in Denmark) andÆlfgifu's sonHarold Harefoot (in England). Godwin supported Harthacnut, butLeofric, earl of Mercia, backed Harold.[19] In a compromise, Harold became king of Mercia and Northumbria, while Harthacnut became king of Wessex. Harold died in 1040, and Harthacnut ruled a reunited England until he died in 1042.[17]
Some members of the House of Wessex saw Cnut's death as a chance to regain power. Æthelred's youngest son,Alfred Aetheling, returned to England but was captured,blinded, and died of his injuries in 1037.[20]
Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–1066) was the only surviving son of Æthelred and Emma. In 1041, Harthacnut recalled his half-brother from exile in Normandy. When he died without heirs, the forty-year-old Edward was the natural successor. He had spent most of his life in Normandy and was "probably more French than English" culturally.[21]
As king, Edward invited his nephew,Edward the Exile, to return to England. Edward died before reaching England, but his sonEdgar Ætheling and daughterMargaret were able to return. Margaret would marryMalcolm III of Scotland.[20]
By this time, theAnglo-Saxon government had become sophisticated.[22] Edward appointed the firstchancellor,Regenbald, who kept theking's seal and oversaw the writing ofcharters andwrits. The treasury had developed into a permanent institution by this time as well.[23]London was becoming the political and commercial capital of England. Edward furthered this transition by buildingWestminster Palace andWestminster Abbey.[24]
Despite his government's sophistication, Edward had much less land and wealth than Earl Godwin and his sons. In 1066, the Godwinson estates were worth £7,000, while the king's estates were worth £5,000.[25] To counter the power of the Godwinsons, Edward created a French party loyal to him. He made his nephew,Ralph of Mantes, theearl of Hereford. He overturned the election of a Godwin relative to beArchbishop of Canterbury and appointedRobert of Jumièges instead. In 1051, Edward's brother-in-law,Count Eustace of Boulogne, visited England and initiated a quarrel with Godwin. Ultimately, Edward had the entire Godwinson familyoutlawed and forced into exile.[26]
Around this time, Edward invited his relativeWilliam, Duke of Normandy, to England. According to Norman sources, the king nominated William as his heir. However, Edward's favouritism towards the French was unpopular with the English people. With popular support, Godwin returned to England in 1052. Edward had to restore the Godwinsons to their former lands. This time, Edward's French supporters were outlawed.[27]
The childless Edward the Confessor died on 5 January 1066. His fifteen-year-old great-nephew,Edgar Ætheling, had the strongest claim to the throne. Nevertheless, Harold Godwinson, earl of Wessex and leader of the powerful Godwin family, claimed Edward promised him the throne. Popular with the people and the Witan,[28] Harold was quickly crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 January, the same day and place Edward was buried.[29]
William of Normandy disputed Harold's succession. William was the great-nephew of Emma of Normandy, wife of two English kings. He marriedMatilda of Flanders, a direct descendant of Alfred the Great. William claimed he was Edward's designated heir and prepared to invade England with the blessing ofPope Alexander II.[30] Before William reached England, KingHarald Hardrada of Norway invaded withTostig Godwinson, the exiled brother of Harold Godwinson. Harold defeated Hardrada at theBattle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066.[31]
Meanwhile, William landed in England on 28 September. He fought Harold at theBattle of Hastings on 14 October. It was a disaster for the English. Harold and his brothersGyrth, the earl of East Anglia, andLeofwine, theearl of Kent, were killed.Ealdred, archbishop of York, nominated Edgar Ætheling to be king, and this was supported by the leaders of London and the earlsMorcar andEdwin.[32]
Edgar was never crowned, and English resistance soon collapsed. Edgar and the English leadership submitted to William, and the Norman conqueror was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 at Westminster Abbey.[33]
After theNorman Conquest, the kings of England were, asdukes of Normandy, nominal vassals to thekings of France. For the next centuries, the English monarchy would be deeply involved with French politics, and English kings usually spent most of their time in France.[34]
The king claimed ownership of all land in England.[note 1] The lands of the old Anglo-Saxon nobility were confiscated and distributed to a French-speakingAnglo-Norman aristocracy according to the principles of feudalism.[36][37] The king gavefiefs to hisbarons who in return owed the kingfealty and military service.[38]
The Normans preserved the basic system of English government. The Witan's role of consultation and advice was continued by thecuria regis (Latin for "king's court").[37] During crown-wearings held three times a year, the king met with all his bishops and barons in themagnum concilium (Latin for "great council"). These councils were generally dominated by the king, and it is unclear if these were truly deliberative bodies.[39] The local shire andhundred courts continued to exist as well.[40]
The Norman kings designated nearly a third of England asroyal forests (i.e. royal hunting preserves).[41] The forest provided kings with food, timber, and money. People paid the king for rights to graze cattle or cut down trees. A system of forest law developed to protect the royal forests. Forest law was unpopular because it was arbitrary and infringed on the property rights of other landholders. A landholder's right to hunt deer or farm his land was limited if it fell within the royal forest.[42]
It took nearly five years of fighting before the Norman Conquest of England was secure. Across England, the Normans builtcastles for defence as well as intimidation of the locals. In London, William ordered construction of theWhite Tower, the central keep of theTower of London. Once finished, the White Tower "was the most imposing emblem of monarchy that the country had ever seen, dwarfing all other buildings for miles around."[43]
At times, there was tension between the monarch and his Normanvassals, who were used to French models of government in whichroyal power was much weaker than in England. The 1075Revolt of the Earls was defeated by the king, but the monarchy continued to resist forces of feudal fragmentation.[44]
The church was critical to William's conquest of England. In 1066, it owned between 25 and 33 per cent of all land,[45] and appointment tobishoprics andabbacies were important sources of royalpatronage. Pope Alexander II supported the Norman invasion because he wanted William to oversee church reform and to remove unfit bishops. William forbade ecclesiastical cases (those involvingmarriage,wills, andlegitimacy) from being heard in secular courts; jurisdiction was handed over tochurch courts. But William also tightened royal control over the church. Bishops were banned from traveling to Rome, and royal permission was needed to enact newcanon law or toexcommunicate a noble.[46][47]
The death of William I in 1087 illustrates the absence of any firm rules of succession. William gave Normandy to his oldest son,Robert Curthose, while his second son, William II or "Rufus" (r. 1087–1100), was given England.[48] Between 1098 and 1099, theGreat Hall at Westminster Palace, the king's main residence, was built. It was one of the largest secular buildings in Europe and a monument to the Anglo-Norman monarchy.[49]
On 2 August 1100, William II was killed while hunting in theNew Forest. His younger brother, Henry I (r. 1100–1135), was hastily elected king by the barons at Winchester on 3 August and crowned king at Westminster Abbey on 5 August, just three days after his brother's death. At the coronation, Henry not only promised to rule well; he renounced the unpopular policies of his brother and promised to restore the laws of Edward the Confessor. This oath was written down and distributed throughout England as theCoronation Charter, which was reissued by all future 12th-century kings and was incorporated intoMagna Carta.[50][51]
In 1106, Henry defeated his brother Robert at theBattle of Tinchebray. Henry gained control of Normandy, and Robert remained a prisoner until his death in 1134. Robert's only legitimate son,William Clito, escaped. As apretender to the duchy of Normandy, Clito was involved in various plots and alliances against Henry until his death in 1128.[52][53]
During Henry's reign, theroyal household was formalised. It was divided into the chapel in charge of royal documents (which evolved into thechancery), thechamber in charge of finances, and themaster-marshal in charge of travel (the court remained itinerant during this period). The household also included several hundred mounted household troops. The office ofjusticiar—effectively the king'schief minister—developed out of the need for aviceroy when the king was in Normandy and was mainly concerned with royal finance and justice.[54] Under the first justiciar,Roger of Salisbury, theExchequer was established to manage royal finances.[55] Royal justice became more accessible with the appointment of local justices in each shire and itinerant justices travelingjudicial circuits of multiple shires.[56] HistorianTracy Borman summarised the impact of Henry I's reforms as "transform[ing] medieval government from an itinerant and often poorly organised household into a highly sophisticated administrative kingship based on permanent, static departments."[57]
Henry marriedMatilda of Scotland, the niece of Edgar the Ætheling. This marriage was widely seen as uniting the House of Normandy with the House of Wessex and produced two children,Matilda (who marriedHoly Roman Emperor Henry V in 1114) andWilliam Adelin (a Norman-French variant of Ætheling).[58] But in 1120, England was thrown into a succession crisis when William Adelin died in the sinking of theWhite Ship.[59] In 1126, Henry I made a controversial decision to name his daughter Empress Matilda (his only surviving legitimate child) his heir and forced the nobility to swear oaths of allegiance to her. In 1128, the widowed Matilda marriedGeoffrey of Anjou, and the couple had three sons in the years 1133–1136.[60]
Despite the oaths sworn to her, Matilda was unpopular both for being a woman and because of her marriage ties toAnjou, Normandy's traditional enemy.[61] Following Henry's death in 1135, his nephew, Stephen of Blois (r. 1135–1154), laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons. Matilda challenged his reign; as a result, England descended into a period of civil war known asthe Anarchy (1138–1153). While Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power, he was ultimately forced to compromise for the sake of peace. Both sides agreed to theTreaty of Wallingford by which Stephen adopted Matilda's son,Henry FitzEmpress, as his son and heir.[62]
On December 19, 1154, Henry II (r. 1154–1189) became the first king of a new dynasty, theHouse of Plantagenet. He was also the first king crownedKing of England rather thanKing of the English. Henry founded theAngevin Empire, which controlled almost half of France including Normandy, Anjou,Maine,Touraine, and theDuchy of Aquitaine.[63]
Henry's first task was restoring royal authority in a kingdom fractured by years of civil war. In some parts of the country, nobles were virtually independent of the Crown. In 1155, Henry expelled foreign mercenaries and ordered the demolition ofillegal castles. He also dealt quickly and effectively with rebellious lords, such asHugh de Mortimer.[64]
Henry's legal reforms had a profound impact on English government for generations. In earlier times, English law was largely based on custom. Henry's reign saw the first official legislation since the Conquest in the form of Henry's various assizes and the growth ofcase law.[65][66] In 1166, theAssize of Clarendon established the supremacy of royal courts overmanorial and ecclesiastical courts.[67] Henry's legal reforms also transformed the king's personal role in the judicial process into an impersonal legal bureaucracy. The 1176Assize of Northampton divided the kingdom into six judicial circuits calledeyres allowing itinerant royal judges to reach the whole kingdom.[68] In 1178, the king ordered five members of hiscuria regis to remain at Westminster and hear legal cases full time, creating theCourt of King's Bench.Writs (standardised royal orders with thegreat seal attached) were developed to deal with common legal problems. Any freeman could purchase a writ from the chancery and receive royal justice without the king's personal intervention.[69] For example, a writ ofnovel disseisin commanded a localjury to determine whether someone had been unjustly dispossessed of land.[68]
Since William the Conqueror's separation of secular and ecclesiastical jurisdiction, church courts claimed exclusive authority to try clergy, includingmonks and clerics inminor orders. The most contentious issue was "criminous clerks" accused of theft, rape or murder. Church courts could not impose the death penalty or bodily mutilation, and their punishments (penance anddefrocking) were lenient. In 1164, Henry issued theConstitutions of Clarendon, which required criminous clerks who had been defrocked to be handed over to royal courts for punishment aslaymen. It also forbade appeals to the pope. ArchbishopThomas Becket opposed the Constitutions, and theBecket controversy culminated in his murder in 1170. In 1172, Henry reached a settlement with the church in theCompromise of Avranches. Appeals to Rome were allowed, and secular courts were given jurisdiction over clerics accused of non-felony crimes.[70][71]
Henry also extended his authority outside of England. In 1157, heinvaded Wales and received the submission ofOwain ofGwynedd andRhys ap Gruffydd ofDeheubarth.[72] The Scottish kingWilliam the Lion was forced to acknowledge the English king as feudal overlord[note 2] in theTreaty of Falaise.[74] The 1175Treaty of Windsor confirmed Henry as feudal overlord of most ofIreland.[75]
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Upon Henry's death, his eldest surviving son Richard I (r. 1189–1199), nicknamed the Lionheart, succeeded to the throne. As king, he spent a total of six months in England.[76] In 1190, the king left England with a large army and fleet to join theThird Crusade to reconquerJerusalem fromSaladin. Richard funded this campaign through taxation (such as theSaladin tithe) as well as selling offices, titles, and land.[77] In his absence, England was governed byWilliam de Longchamp, in whom was consolidated both secular and ecclesiastical power as justiciar, chancellor,Bishop of Ely, andpapal legate.[78]
Concerned that his younger brotherJohn would usurp power while he was on Crusade, Richard made his brother swear to leave England for three years. John broke his oath and was in England by April 1191 leading opposition against Longchamp. FromSicily, Richard sent ArchbishopWalter de Coutances to England as his envoy to resolve the situation. In October, a group of barons and bishops led by the Archbishop deposed Longchamp. John was appointedregent, but real power was exercised by Coutances as justiciar.[79]
While returning from Crusade, Richard was imprisoned byHoly Roman Emperor Henry VI for over a year and was not released until England paid an enormous ransom.[80] In 1193, John defected toPhilip II of France, and the two plotted to take Richard's lands on the Continent.[81] After a four-year absence, Richard returned to England in March 1194, but he soon left again to wage war against Philip II, who had overrun theVexin and parts of Normandy.[82] By 1198, Richard had reconquered most of his territory. At theBattle of Gisors, Richard adopted the mottoDieu et mon droit (French for "God and my Right"), which was later adopted as the royal motto.[83] In 1199, Richard died from wounds received while besiegingChâlus-Chabrol. Before his death, the king made peace with John, naming him his successor.[84]
At Westminster Abbey in May 1199, John (r. 1199–1216) was crownedRex Angliae (Latin for "King of England") rather than the older form ofRex Anglorum (Latin for "King of the English").[85] John's accession to the throne did not go uncontested. His deceased older brother,Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, had a son namedArthur I. For a time, Arthur was Richard's designated heir. He was presumably murdered on John's orders in 1203. Arthur's sister,Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany, was placed under house arrest;[86] she died in 1241, with her claim to the throne only posthumously recognized.[87][non-primary source needed]
In 1204, Johnlost Normandy and his other Continental possessions. The remainder of his reign was shaped by attempts to rehabilitate his military reputation and fund wars of reconquest.[88] Traditionally, the king was expected to fund his government out of his own income derived from the royaldemesne, profits of royal justice, and profits from the feudal system (such asincidents,reliefs, andaids). In reality, this was rarely possible, especially in time of war.[89]
To fund his campaigns, John imposed a "thirteenth" (8 per cent) tax on revenues and movable goods that would become the model for taxation through theTudor period. The king also raised money by charging high court fees and—in the opinion of his barons—abusing his right to feudal incidents and reliefs.[90]Scutages were levied almost annually, much more often than under earlier kings. In addition, John showed partiality and favouritsm when dispensing justice. This and his paranoia caused his relationship with the barons to break down.[91]
After quarreling with the king over the election of a new Archbishop of Canterbury,Pope Innocent III placed England underpapal interdict in 1208. For the next six years, priests refused to saymass, officiate marriages, or bury the dead. John responded by confiscating church property.[92] In 1209, the pope excommunicated John, but he remained unrepentant. It was not until 1213 that John reconciled with the pope, going so far as to convert the Kingdom of England into apapal fief with John as the pope's vassal.[93]
TheAnglo-French War of 1213–1214 was fought to restore the Angevin Empire, but John was defeated at theBattle of Bouvines. The military and financial losses of 1214 severely weakened the king, and the barons demanded that he govern according to Henry I'sCoronation Charter. On 5 May 1215, a group of barons renounced their fealty to John calling themselves theArmy of God and the Holy Church and choseRobert Fitzwalter to be their leader.[note 3] The rebels numbered about 40 barons together with their sons and vassals. The other barons—around a hundred—worked withArchbishop Langton and the papal legateGuala Bicchieri to effect compromise between the two sides.[95] Over a month of negotiations resulted inMagna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter"), which was formally agreed to by both sides atRunnymede on 15 June. This document defined and limited the king's powers over his subjects. It would be reconfirmed throughout the 13th century and gain the status of "inalienable custom and fundamental law".[96] HistorianDan Jones notes that:
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Whereas many of the clauses in the charter were formal terms pertaining to specific policies pursued by John—whether with regard to raising armies, levying taxes, impeding merchants, or arguing with the Church—the most famous clauses aimed at a deeper elaboration of the rights of subjects to set out the limits of central government. Clause 39 reads: "No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or outlawed or exiled or in any way ruined ... except by lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land." Clause 40 is more laconic: "To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny or delay right or justice." These clauses addressed the whole spirit of John's reign and by extension the spirit of kingship itself. For the eleven years in which John had resided in England, his barons had tasted a form of tyranny. John had used his powers in an arbitrary, partisan, and exploitative fashion and had used the processes of law deliberately to weaken and menace his noble lords. He had broken the spirit of kingship as presented by Henry II back in 1153, when he traveled the country offering unity and legal process to all.[97]
Unlike earlier charters of liberties, Magna Carta included an enforcement mechanism in the form of a council of 25 barons who were permitted to wage "lawful rebellion" against the king if he violated the charter. The king had no intention of adhering to the document and appealed to Pope Innocent who annulled the agreement and excommunicated the rebel barons. This began theFirst Barons' War, during which the rebels offered the crown to Philip II's son, the futureLouis VIII of France.[note 4] By June 1216, Louis had taken control of half of England, including London. While he had not been crowned, he was proclaimed King Louis I atSt Paul's Cathedral, and many English nobles along with KingAlexander II of Scotland gave him homage. In the midst of this collapse of royal authority, John died abruptly atNewark Castle on 19 October.[99]
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After John's death, loyal barons and bishops took his nine-year-old son toGloucester Abbey where he was crowned Henry III (r. 1216–1272) in a rushed coronation. This established the precedent that the eldest son became king regardless of age.[100] Henry was the first child king sinceÆthelred the Unready,[101] andWilliam Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, served asregent until his death in 1219. Marshal led royal forces to victory against the rebel barons and French invaders at theBattles of Lincoln andSandwich in 1217.[102]
During Henry's reign, the principle thatkings were subject to the law gained acceptance.[103] To build support for the new king, his government re-issued Magna Carta in 1216 and 1217 (along with theCharter of the Forest).[104] In January 1225, Magna Carta was re-issued at a Great Council in return for approval of a tax to fund military campaigns in France. This established a new constitutional precedent in which "military expeditions would be financed at the expense of detailed concessions of political liberties".[105] In 1236, Henry began calling such meetingsParliament. By the 1240s, these early Parliaments had not only assumed power to grant taxes but were also venues where nobles could complain about government policy or corruption.[106]
In 1227, Henry was eighteen years old, and the regency officially ended. Yet, throughout his personal rule the king displayed a tendency to be dominated by foreignfavourites. After the fall of the justiciarHubert de Burgh in 1230, BishopPeter des Roches became the king's chief minister. While holding no great office himself, the bishop showered hisPoitevin relationPeter de Rivaux with a large number of offices.[107] He was placed in charge of the treasury, theprivy seal, and theroyal wardrobe. At the time, the wardrobe was a department that was at the centre of financial and political decisions in theroyal household. He was given financial control of the royal household for life, was keeper of the forests and ports, and was, in addition, the sheriff of twenty-one counties. Rivaux used his immense power to enact important administrative reforms.[108] Nevertheless, the accumulation of power by foreigners ledRichard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, to open rebellion. The bishops as a group threatened Henry with excommunication, which finally made him strip the Poitevin party of power.[109]
Henry then transferred his favouritism to his Lusignan half-brothers,William andAymer de Valence. By the 1250s, there was widespread resentment against the Lusignans. There was also opposition to the "Sicilian business", Henry's unrealistic plans to conquer theKingdom of Sicily for his second son,Edmund Crouchback. In 1255, the king informed Parliament that as part of the Sicilian campaign he owed the pope the huge sum of £100,000[note 5] and that if he defaulted England would be placed under an interdict. By 1257, there was a growing consensus that Henry was unfit to rule.[111][112]
In 1258, the king was forced to submit to a radical reform programme promulgated at theOxford Parliament. TheProvisions of Oxford transferred royal power to a council of fifteen barons. A parliament would meet three times a year and appoint all royal officers (from justiciar and chancellor to sheriffs andbailiffs). The new government's leader wasSimon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, the king's brother-in-law and former friend. By the terms of the1295 Treaty of Paris, the English Crown gave up all claims to Normandy and Anjou in return for keeping the Duchy of Aquitaine as a vassal of the French king.[113]
When the king tried to overturn the Provisions of Oxford, Montfort led a rebellion, theSecond Barons' War. In 1265, Montfort called a Parliament to consolidate support for the rebellion. For the first time,knights of the shire andburgesses from the important towns were summoned along with barons and bishops.Simon de Montfort's Parliament was an important milestone in the evolution of Parliament. Montfort was killed at theBattle of Evesham in 1265, and royal authority was restored.[114]
Henry traveled less than past kings. As a consequence, he spent large amounts of money on royal palaces. His most expensive projects were the rebuilding of Westminster Palace and Abbey, costing £55,000.[note 6] He spent a further £9,000[note 7] on the Tower of London.[115] Westminster Abbey alone nearly bankrupted the king.[116]
Henry III died in 1272, having been king for fifty-six years. His turbulent reign was the third longest of any English monarch.[114]
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Edward I (r. 1272–1307), nicknamed Longshanks for his height, was in Italy when he learned that his father had died. Previous monarchs were only legally recognised as king after coronation, but Edward's reign officially began on 20 November, the same day his father was buried at Westminster Abbey.Walter Giffard, archbishop of York;Roger Mortimer, a marcher lord; andRobert Burnell were appointed regents. A proclamation issued on 23 November stated:[118]
The government of the realm has come to the king on the death of King Henry his father, by hereditary succession and by the will of the magnates of the realm and by their fealty done to the king, wherefore the magnates have caused the king's peace to be proclaimed in the king's name.
Edward returned to England in August 1274 determined to restore royal authority. His first act was ordering theHundred Rolls survey, a detailed investigation into what rights and land the Crown had lost since Henry III's reign. It was also intended to root out corruption by royal officials, and while few people were prosecuted for wrongdoing, it sent a message that Edward was a reformer.[119]
From his father's reign, Edward learned the importance of building national consensus for his policies through Parliament, which he usually summoned twice a year at Easter andMichaelmas. Edward effected his reform program through a series of parliamentary statutes:Statute of Westminster of 1275,Statute of Gloucester of 1278,Statute of Mortmain of 1279,Statute of Acton Burnell of 1283, andStatute of Westminster of 1285. In 1297, he reissued Magna Carta.[120][121] In 1295, Edward summoned theModel Parliament, which included knights and burgesses to represent the counties and towns. These "middle earners" were the most important group of taxpayers, and Edward was eager to gain their financial support for an invasion of Scotland.[122]
Through effective management of Parliament, Edward was able to fund his military campaigns in Wales and Scotland. He successfully and permanentlyconquered Wales, built impressive castles to enforce English domination, and brought the country under English law with theStatute of Wales. In 1301, the king's eldest son, Edward of Caernarfon, was createdPrince of Wales and given control of thePrincipality of Wales. The title continues to be granted to the heirs of British monarchs.[124]
The death ofAlexander III of Scotland in 1286 and his granddaughterMargaret of Norway in 1290 left the Scottish throne vacant. TheGuardians of Scotland recognised Edward's feudal overlordship and invited him to adjudicate theScottish succession dispute. In 1292,John Balliol was chosen Scotland's new king, but Edward's brutal treatment of his northern vassal led to theFirst War of Scottish Independence. In 1307, Edward died on his way to invade Scotland.[125]
At his coronation, Edward II (r. 1307–1327) promised not only to uphold the laws of Edward the Confessor as was traditional but also "the laws and rightful customs which the community of the realm shall have chosen".[126] Edward thus abandoned any claim to absolute power and recognised the need to rule in cooperation with Parliament.[127] The new king inherited problems from his father: the Crown was in debt and the war in Scotland was going badly. He compounded these problems by alienating the nobility. The main cause of conflict was the influence wielded by royal favourites.[128]
The king's reliance on favourites proved a convenientscapegoat for the barons, who blamed unpopular policies on them rather than directly oppose the king.[129] When Parliament met in April 1308,Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, and a delegation of nobles presented theDeclaration of 1308, which for the first time explicitly distinguished between the king as a person andthe Crown as an institution to which the people owed allegiance. This distinction was known as thedoctrine of capacities.[130]
In 1310, Parliament complained that "the state of the king and the kingdom had much deteriorated since the death of the elder King Edward ... and the whole kingdom had been not a little injured".[131] Specifically, Edward was accused of being guided by evil counselors, impoverishing the Crown, violating Magna Carta, and losing Scotland. The magnates elected twenty-one ordainers to reform the government. The completed reforms were presented to Edward as theOrdinances in August 1311. Like Magna Carta and the Provisions of Oxford, the Ordinances of 1311 were an attempt to limit the powers of the monarch. It banned the practice ofpurveyance and going to war without consulting Parliament. Government revenue was to be paid to the exchequer rather than to the royal household, and Parliament was to meet at least once a year. Parliament was to create committees to investigate royal abuses and to appoint royal ministers and officials (such as the chancellor and county sheriffs).[132]
The Ordinances also required the exile of the king's favourite,Piers Gaveston. By January 1312, Edward had publicly repudiated the ordinances, and Gaveston was back in England.[133]Earl Thomas of Lancaster, the king's cousin, led a group of magnates that captured and executed Gaveston.[note 8] This act nearly plunged England into civil war but negotiations restored an uneasy peace.[135]
After Gaveston's death, the most influential men around the king wereHugh Despenser and his son,Hugh Despenser the Younger. The king alienated moderate barons by dispensing royal patronage without parliamentary approval as required by the Ordinances and allowing the Despensers to act with impunity. In 1318, negotiations led to theTreaty of Leake in which the king agreed to abide by the Ordinances of 1311. A permanent royal council was created with eight bishops, four earls, and four barons as members.[136]
Edward's favouritsm toward the Despensers continued to destabilize the kingdom. The Despensers had become the gatekeepers to the king, and their enemies "were liable to be deprived of land or possessions or else thrown into prison".[137] The Welsh Marches were particularly destabilized by Hugh the Younger's accumulation of land. In 1321, a group ofmarcher lords invaded the Despenser estates, beginning theDespenser War.[138] Edward defeated the baronial opposition in 1322 and overturned the Ordinances.[139] For the next few years, Edward ruled as a tyrant. The author of theVita Edwardi Secundi wrote of this period,[140]
parliaments, colloquies, and councils decide nothing these days. For the nobles of the realm, terrified by threats and the penalties inflicted on others, let the king's will have free play. Thus today will conquers reason. For whatever pleases the king, though lacking in reason, has the force of law.
In 1324, Edward's wifeIsabella and their son, Prince Edward, traveled to France on a diplomatic mission. While there, the Queen formed an alliance withRoger Mortimer, a marcher lord who had fought against Edward in the Despenser War. At the head of a mercenary army, theyinvaded England in 1326. Important noblemen defected to the Queen's cause, andLondon rose in revolt. Meanwhile, the King and the Dispensers fled to Wales. On October 26, Isabella and Mortimer proclaimed that in the King's absence power temporarily resided with the fourteen-year-old Prince Edward. Having been abandoned by most of his household, the King was captured on 16 November.[141]
By this point, it was clear that Edward II could not remain king, but this precipitated aconstitutional crisis as there was no legal process to remove a crowned and anointed king who in theory was the source of all public authority.[142] At theParliament of 1327, the Articles of Accusation were drawn up accusing the King of violating his coronation oath and following the advice of evil councilors. On 20 January, Edward II was forced toabdicate. This marked the first time in English history that a monarch was formally deposed from the throne. The former king died on 21 September, probably murdered on the orders of his wife.[143][144]
Five days after his father's abdication, the fourteen-year-old Edward III (r. 1327–1377) was crowned king, but it was Isabella and Mortimer who truly held power. Under their three-year rule, the monarchy was weakened abroad and at home. They made a disadvantageous treaty with France and failed to press Edward's claim to the French throne when his uncle,Charles IV, died without a male heir. They also agreed to theTreaty of Edinburgh–Northampton, which forfeited England's claim to overlordship of Scotland. At home, Mortimer used his new power to enrich himself even as the Crown faced bankruptcy and the nation experienced a rise in crime and violence. In 1330, Mortimer hadEdmund of Woodstock, the King's uncle, arrested and executed for treason.[146]
On 19 October 1330, the seventeen-year-old Edward staged acoup atNottingham Castle with the help ofWilliam Montagu and around 16 other young household companions. Mortimer was arrested, tried before Parliament, and executed for treason.[147] The young King, now in full control of his kingdom, realised that he could not afford to alienate the English nobility. He cultivated "an aristocratic culture, which bound the king and nobles together."[148] In particular, royal-noble bonds were strengthened through frequenttournaments in which Edward himself would take part.[149] Edward was the first king since the Conquest to speak English, and during his reignMiddle English began to replace French as the language of the aristocracy.[150]
In 1333, Edward invaded Scotland winning a major victory at theBattle of Halidon Hill due to the use of theEnglish longbow.[151] The victory allowed Edward to placeEdward Balliol on the Scottish throne with himself as overlord. With French help, the Scots loyal toDavid II continued to resist English interference in theSecond War of Scottish Independence.[152]
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In March 1337, Edward created six new earldoms in order to gain military support for a war against France. His eldest son, the six-year-oldEdward of Woodstock, was madeDuke of Cornwall, the firstduchy created in England. In May 1337, KingPhilip VI of France confiscated the Duchy of Aquitaine and the County of Ponthieu from the English king. In 1340, Edwardclaimed the French throne on the grounds that he was the last male descendant of his grandfather,Philip IV of France. To symbolise his claim, the King added thefleur-de-lis to theroyal arms of England.[153][154]
In 1346, Edward invaded France in pursuit of his claim, setting off theHundred Years' War which would last until 1453. The English won theBattle of Crécy andafter a siege took the town ofCalais, which would remain an English possession for the next two centuries. After a successful campaign in France, Edward returned to England and founded theOrder of the Garter atWindsor Castle in 1348.[155] Between 1350 and 1377, Edward spent £50,000[note 9] transforming Windsor from an ordinary castle into a "palatial castle of quite extraordinary splendour".[156]
The King's eldest son Edward, known to history as theBlack Prince, won theBattle of Poitiers in 1356 in which the French kingJohn II was captured.[150] In theTreaty of Brétigny of 1360, Edward renounced his claims to the French throne and was awarded outright sovereignty over Calais, Ponthieu, and Aquitaine. Edward also negotiated a peace with Scotland that included the release of David II in return for recognising the English king's overlordship of Scotland.[157]
Edward worked with Parliament to build consensus and support for his wars and, in the process, furthered Parliament's development as an essential institution of government. According to historian David Starkey,[158]
Edward was willing to do whatever was necessary to persuade members of Parliament to dig their hands deep into their constituents' pockets. It meant doing deals, greasing palms, slapping backs. Edward's victories were reported in detail; Parliament was consulted on war diplomacy and ratified the peace treaties with France ... The length of Edward's wars also normalized taxation. Direct taxation, on income and property, continued to be voted only for war. But indirect taxation on trade became permanent, enhancing royal power and extending the scope of royal government.
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There were a number of setbacks in the last years of Edward's reign. The new French kingCharles V successfully drove the Black Prince out of Aquitaine. Prince Edward returned to England in 1371 bankrupt and in declining health possibly caused bydysentery. The infirmity of both the elderly King and Prince Edward created apower vacuum that the King's younger son,John of Gaunt, tried to fill; nevertheless, there were many complaints of corruption and mismanagement in government. In theGood Parliament of 1376, theHouse of Commons refused to finance the war with France until corrupt ministers andAlice Perrers, theroyal mistress, were removed. Having little choice, the King acquiesced and the accused ministers were arrested and brought to trial before Parliament in the firstimpeachment proceedings. While the Good Parliament was still in session, the Black Prince died at the age of 45.[159]
Edward's new heir was his nine-year-old grandson Richard of Bordeaux. There were concerns that Richard's uncles might usurp power. To strengthen the boy's position, he was recognised in Parliament asheir apparent and given the titles of prince of Wales, duke of Cornwall, and earl of Chester. Having secured the succession, Edward III died in 1377.[160]
Richard II (r. 1377–1399) was ten years old when he became king. Despite the king's youth, no regency was set up to govern during his minority since his uncle John of Gaunt,duke of Lancaster (the most likely candidate for regent) was unpopular. Instead, Richard theoretically ruled in his own right with the advice of a 12-member advisory council. In reality, the government was dominated by the king's uncles, especially Gaunt, and courtiers, such asSimon Burley,Guichard d'Angle, andAubrey de Vere.[161][162] In 1381, resentment overpoll taxes led to thePeasants' Revolt. The fourteen-year-old king's brave and decisive leadership in ending the revolt demonstrated he was ready to assume actual power. But the revolt also left a deep impression on Richard, "convincing him that disobedience, no matter how justified, constituted a threat to order and stability within his realm and must not be tolerated."[163]
After the revolt, Parliament appointedMichael de la Pole to advise the King. Pole proved himself a loyal servant and was made chancellor in 1383 andearl of Suffolk in 1385. The King's most important favourite, however, wasRobert de Vere, theearl of Oxford. In 1385, de Vere was given the novel title ofmarquess and placed above all earls and below only the royal dukes in rank. In 1386, de Vere was madeduke of Ireland, the first duke not of royal blood. This favouritism alienated other aristocrats, including the King's uncles.[164][165]
Another cause for complaint was the situation in France. The English retained only Calais and a small part of Gascony while French ships harassed English traders in the Channel. Richard personally led aninvasion of Scotland in 1385 that achieved nothing. Meanwhile, he spent lavishly on palace renovations and court entertainments.[166] One historian described Richard's government as "a high-tax, high-spend, cliquey affair."[167]
In 1386, Pole requested additional funds to defend England against a potential French invasion, but under the leadership of Richard's uncleThomas of Woodstock, theWonderful Parliament refused to act until Pole was removed as chancellor.[168] Richard refused at first but gave in after being threatened with deposition. A council was set up to audit royal finances and exercise royal authority. At 19 years old, the King was once again reduced to a figurehead.[169] Defiant, Richard left London for a "gyration" (tour) of the country to gather an army.[170]
Richard returned to London in November 1387 and was approached by three nobles: his uncle Thomas, duke of Gloucester;Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel; andThomas Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. TheseLords Appellant (as they became known)appealed (or indicted) Pole, de Vere, and other close associates of the King with treason.[171] The Lords Appellant defeated Richard's army at theBattle of Radcot Bridge, and the King had no choice but to submit to their wishes. At theMerciless Parliament of 1388, Richard's favourites were convicted of treason.[168]
After the royal favourites had been removed, the Lords Appellant were content. In 1389, Richard resumed royal authority and reconciled with John of Gaunt, who used his influence on Richard's behalf.[173] For a time, Richard ruled well. The King led a successful expedition to Ireland in 1394 and negotiated a 28-year truce with France in 1396.[174] In July 1397, Richard was finally ready to move against his enemies. The three Lords Appellant were arrested. When Parliament met at Westminster, the presence of 300 of Richard'sCheshire archers made it clear that no dissent would be tolerated. ChancellorEdmund Stafford, bishop of Exeter, preached the opening sermon onEzekiel 37:22, "There shall be one king over them all".[175] The Lords Appellant were then tried and found guilty of treason.[176]
For the next two years, Richard ruled as a tyrant, using extortion to gain forced loans from his subjects.[177] The twice-married king was childless and the succession was uncertain. The man with the strongest claim was John of Gaunt, whose son and heir wasHenry Bolingbroke.[176] In 1397, a dispute between Bolingbroke andThomas Mowbray led to the former's banishment from England for 10 years.[178] When John of Gaunt died in 1399, Richard confiscated theDuchy of Lancaster and extended Bolingbroke's banishment for life.[179]
In May 1399, Richard embarked on a second invasion of Ireland, taking most of his followers with him. Bolingbroke returned to England in July with a small force of men but quickly gained the support of powerful nobles, such asHenry Percy, theearl of Northumberland and most powerful man in northern England.[180][181] Richard returned to England, but his army and supporters rapidly melted away. By 2 September, Richard was a prisoner in the Tower.[179]
On 30 September, an assembly of theHouse of Lords and House of Commons met in Westminster Hall (later referred to as aconvention parliament, it technically was not a parliament because it met without royal authority).Richard Scrope, archbishop of York, stated that Richard, who was not present, had agreed to abdicate. WhenThomas Arundel, archbishop of Canterbury, asked if the Lords and Commons accepted this each lord agreed and the Commons shouted their agreement.[182] Thirty-nine articles of deposition were read out in which Richard was charged with breaking his coronation oath and violating "the rightful laws and customs of the realm".[183] AfterJohn Trevor, bishop of St. Asaph, announced Richard's deposition, Bolingbroke gave a speech claiming the Crown. The archbishops of Canterbury and York each took one of Bolingbroke's arms and seated him on the empty throne to shouts of acclimation from the Lords and Commons.[184]
Richard II was not the first English monarch to be deposed; that distinction belongs to Edward II. Edward abdicated in favor of his son and heir. In Richard's case, the line of succession was deliberately broken by Parliament. HistorianTracy Borman writes that this "created a dangerous precedent and made the crown fundamentally unstable."[185]
Bolingbroke was crowned as Henry IV (r. 1399–1413) two weeks after Richard II's deposition. His dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster, a reference to his father's title Duke of Lancaster. As part of the coronation, Henry createdKnights of the Bath, a tradition that was repeated at all later coronations. He was also the first English monarch to be crowned on theStone of Scone, which Edward I had taken from Scotland.[186]
In January 1400, theEpiphany Rising unsuccessfully tried to free Richard and restore him to the throne. Henry realized he would have no security as long as Richard lived, so he ordered his death, most likely by starvation.[187] Henry's reign was forever tarnished by the deposition and murder of an anointed king, and he constantly had to fight off plots and rebellions. In 1400, theWelsh Revolt began, andHenry Hotspur of the powerfulPercy family joined the revolt in 1403. Hotspur was defeated at theBattle of Shrewsbury, but King Henry continued to face challenges to his legitimacy.[188]
When overthrowing Richard, Henry had promised to reduce taxation, and Parliament held him to that promise, refusing to raise taxes even as the king went into debt fighting defensive wars. Financially, Henry benefited from inheriting the vast Lancastrian estates of his father. He decided to administer these lands separately from the crown lands.[189] The practice of holding theDuchy of Lancaster separate from thecrown estate was continued by later monarchs.
Charles VI of France, Richard's father-in-law, refused to recognise Henry. The French revived their claims to Aquitaine, attacked Calais, and aided the Welsh Revolt. But in 1407, theArmagnac–Burgundian Civil War divided France, and the English were keen to take advantage of French disunity. English policy vacillated toward the opposing sides as King Henry supported theArmagnac faction, while his eldest son,Henry of Monmouth, supported theBurgundian faction. As the king's health declined, Monmouth assumed a greater role in government, and there were suggestions that the king should abdicate in favor of his son.[190]
Abdication became unnecessary when Henry IV died in 1413, and Monmouth became King Henry V (r. 1413–1422). He escaped the troubles of his father's reign by making conciliatory gestures toward his father's enemies. He also removed the taint of usurpation by honoring the deceased Richard II and giving him a royal re-burial at Westminster Abbey.[190]
As a result of his unifying gestures, Henry V's reign was largely free from domestic strife, leaving the king free to pursue thelast phase of the Hundred Years' War with France. The war appealed to English national pride,[191] and Parliament readily granted a double subsidy to finance the campaign, which began in August 1415. In this first campaign, Henry won a legendary victory at theBattle of Agincourt.[192] The triumphant king returned home to a jubilant nation eager to support further wars of conquest. Parliament gave the king lifetimeduties on wine imports and other tax grants. When he was ready to return to France, Parliament granted another double subsidy.[193]
In 1419, he conquered Normandy—the first time an English king ruled Normandy since King John lost it in 1204.[194] In 1420, theTreaty of Troyes recognised Henry as heir and regent of the incapacitated King Charles VI of France. The new peace was sealed by Henry's marriage to the French princessCatherine of Valois. Charles's son, theDauphin, was disinherited by the treaty; however, he continued to assert his right to the French throne and remained in control of over half of France south of theLoire river.[195]
Henry V was a popular king who restored royal authority and lowered crime. Despite high taxes, England prospered under Henry V. He kept his personal expenses low and managed royal finances well.[196] But Henry's frequent absences from England did create difficulties. While in France, Henry insisted on dealing with petitions from Parliament personally despite the long distances and delays involved. By 1420, the House of Commons was complaining, and funds for further wars in France were more difficult to secure. On 31 August 1422, the king fell ill and died while on another campaign in France.[195]
Only nine months old when his father died, Henry VI (1str. 1422–1461; 2ndr. 1470–1471) was the youngest to inherit the Crown. His grandfather, Charles VI of France, died on 21 October 1422. Under the terms of the Treaty of Troyes, the infant Henry became thedual monarch of England and France.[197] In his will, Henry V made his brotherJohn, duke of Bedford, regent of France. His other brotherHumphrey, duke of Gloucester, was made regent in England. Gloucester, however, was a poor statesman and distrusted by his peers. Instead of sole regent, he becamelord protector[note 10] and governed alongside a regency council(seeRegency government, 1422–1437).[199]
On 29 July 1429,Charles VII was crowned King of France atReims Cathedral in a clear violation of the Treaty of Troyes. In response, the eight-year-old Henry was quickly crowned at Westminster on 5 November. Parts of theFrench coronation service were added to emphasise Henry's claim to the French throne.[200] In April 1430, the young king traveled to France for his second coronation. Traditionally, French monarchs were crowned at Reims Cathedral. For security reasons, Henry received coronation atNotre-Dame Cathedral in Paris on 16 December 1431.[201]
Bedford died in 1435, and the regency government ended in 1437.[199] Henry was pious, generous, and forgiving but also indecisive. He was the opposite of his warrior father and the first monarch since the Conquest never to command an army.[203] While he enjoyed the trappings of kingship (holding many crown-wearing ceremonies and participating inroyal touch rituals), Henry depended on others to run the government. Initially, this responsibility fell to his uncle Gloucester and great-uncle CardinalHenry Beaufort.[204] Later, the King replaced them withWilliam de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk,[205] whose abuses of power and heavy spending inspired intense opposition.[206]
While never surrendering his claim to be King of France, Henry attempted to make peace with Charles VII. In 1445, he marriedMargaret of Anjou, the niece ofQueen Marie of France. Unlike her husband, Margaret took an active interest in government affairs.[207] The English always disliked politically active queens and suspected Margaret of advancing French interests.[208]
Suffolk had supported the unpopular peace policy and marriage. To improve his popularity, he reversed course and resumed hostilities with France. By September 1449, the English had lost all of Normandy. Parliament reacted byimpeaching Suffolk in February 1450.[209] It charged him with impoverishing the Crown and plotting the King's death. To protect his favourite, the King banished Suffolk, who was subsequently murdered while boarding a ship.[210] Popular outrage overmaladministration led toJack Cade's Rebellion. Henry fled London and left Margaret to restore the peace.[211]
In August 1450,Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, returned from France. Somerset served as governor of Normandy, and many blamed him for its loss. Nevertheless, he quickly became Henry's new favourite and chief minister. Around the same time,Richard, duke of York, returned from serving aslieutenant of Ireland and became the leader of the opposition against Somerset. These two men were potential heirs of the childless king. Like Henry, Somerset descended from Edward III's third surviving son, John of Gaunt. York's mother descended from Gaunt's older brother,Lionel, duke of Clarence, and his father descended from Gaunt's younger brother,Edmund, duke of York.[212] York's maternal ancestry arguably gave him a better claim to the throne than Henry himself.[211]
In July 1453, the French conquered Gascony, ending 300 years of English rule and the Hundred Years War.[211] Henry had lost all of his French inheritance except forCalais.[205] This event probably precipitated his mental breakdown in August. In October, Margaret gave birth to a son namedPrince Edward, and she attempted to rule for her incapacitated husband. However, Parliament made York lord protector in March 1454. Despite the King's recovery at Christmas 1454, York refused to give up power. In May 1455, the Yorkists fought royal forces at theBattle of St Albans, traditionally considered the start of theWars of the Roses (1455–1487).[213]
At the parliament of October 1460, York submitted his claim to the throne, which rested on the argument that Richard II's rightful heir was York's uncle,Edmund Mortimer. Therefore, all three Lancastrian kings had reigned unlawfully.[214] However, the House of Lords declined to sanction Henry's deposition. Instead, it decided that Henry would remain king but recognise York as his heir(seeAct of Accord). While Henry seemed to accept this, Margaret refused to agree to her son's disinheritance and continued fighting.[215]
After York died in 1460, his sonEdward IV continued to assert his claim. In March 1461, the nineteen-year-old Edward entered London, and a hastily convened Yorkist-dominated council declared him king. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 4 March. Henry and Margaret fled to Scotland with their son. In 1465, Henry was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.[216][215]
Edward IV (1str. 1461–1470; 2ndr. 1471–1483) owed the throne mainly to the support of his cousin,Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. After the Yorkist victory, Warwick became the King's chief minister. However, the two men did not always agree on policy. Warwick favored an alliance with France and was negotiating withLouis XI for Edward's marriage to a French princess. Edward pursued an alliance withBurgundy, England's traditional ally and trading partner. In 1468,Margaret of York marriedCharles the Bold of Burgundy.[217]
The King angered Warwick when he announced his marriage toElizabeth Woodville, the widow of a Lancastrian knight.[217] Elizabeth's five brothers and five sisters were all married into the nobility, and her brothers received powerful offices.[218] Warwick and Edward's brotherGeorge, Duke of Clarence, resented the Woodville family's influence.[219]
After failed rebellions in 1470, Warwick and Clarence fled to France, where they made peace with Margaret of Anjou.[220] With French support, Warwick and Henry VI's half-brother,Jasper Tudor, invaded England in September 1470.[221] Edward fled to Burgundy.[220]
Since 1465, Henry VI lived in the Tower of London as a prisoner. In October 1470, Warwick released Henry and restored him to the throne. However, Henry was, in truth, Warwick's puppet. Warwick's daughter married Henry's son,Edward of Westminster.[222]
Meanwhile, Edward IV regrouped the Yorkist forces in Burgundy. He returned to England in March 1471 and reconciled with his brother Clarence. Warwick died at theBattle of Barnet. On the same day, Margaret of Anjou and her son landed in England. However, the Yorkists defeated them at theBattle of Tewkesbury.[223] Edward of Westminster died at Tewkesbury, and Henry VI was put to death on 21 May 1471.[222]
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After the deaths of Henry VI and his only son, most Lancastrian supporters were willing to reconcile with Edward IV, who graciously welcomed them at court and gave them important offices. Two notable exceptions were Henry's half-brotherJasper Tudor and his nephewHenry Tudor, who fled to Brittany.[225] Meanwhile, the Yorkist succession was secure. Edward and Elizabeth had many children: five daughters and two sons,Prince Edward andPrince Richard.[226]
Years of civil war had weakened the monarchy. Royal land had been given away to nobles to buy support. Edward turned toJohn Fortescue, a formerLord Chief Justice under the Lancastrians, to rebuild royal authority. Historian David Starkey calls Fortescue "England's first constitutional analyst". He set down his ideas inThe Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy, which identified the root cause of the monarchy's weakness in needing Parliament's consent for taxation. This situation had made a few English nobles wealthy and powerful. At the same time, the king was relatively poor and unable to enforce royal authority. Fortescue recommended that the king acquire land and become the wealthiest man in the country. In this way, he would be rich enough to rule without parliamentary taxation.[227]
In 1476, the Duke of Clarence was executed for treason, and his vast estates were confiscated by the King. This allowed Edward to implement Fortescue's advice, and royal revenues increased. For five years, Edward ruled without needing to summon Parliament.[228] He also improved royal finances by placing Crown lands in the hands of salaried officials rather than renting them to courtiers.[229]
On 9 April 1483, the forty-year-old king died after a ten–day illness. On his deathbed, he made plans for his eldest son to be crowned on 4 May. The King chose his brother,Richard, Duke of Gloucester, to be lord protector until his son came of age.[230]
Edward V (r. April – June 1483) became king at twelve. As Prince of Wales, he had lived atLudlow Castle since the age of three under the care of his maternal uncleAnthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, andJohn Alcock, Bishop of Worcester.[231] Edward's mother, Queen Elizabeth, had her brother escort him to London with 2,000 armed men.[230] Elizabeth believed her son should rule in his own right,[232] and Richard was concerned the Queen and her unpopular family would attempt to take control. Richard and his men intercepted the royal entourage atStony Stratford, sixty miles from London.[230]
Richard took custody of the King and arrested Rivers and other royal household members. When Elizabeth heard the news, she fled to Westminster Abbey forsanctuary with her children. Richard returned to London on 4 May and placed his nephew in the Tower's royal apartments. Richard, now formally lord protector, postponed the coronation to June 22.[230]
Richard began organising his forces against the Woodvilles and their supporters.Lord Hastings, Edward IV's friend andlord chamberlain, wassummarily executed on 13 June. On 16 June,Cardinal Bourchier convinced Elizabeth to allow Prince Richard to leave sanctuary for his brother's coronation. With Prince Richard in custody, his uncle rescheduled the coronation for 9 November.[233]
On 22 June, Parliament decreed the marriage of Edward IV and Elizabeth invalid, making their childrenillegitimate(seeTitulus Regius).[234] Edward and Prince Richard, the so-calledPrinces in the Tower, were never seen after September 1483. Contemporary opinion widely believed Richard had the boys murdered.[235]
The Wars of the Roses continued during the reign of Richard III (1483–1485). Ultimately, the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrians led byHenry Tudor, in 1485, when Richard III was killed in theBattle of Bosworth Field.[236]
King Henry VII then neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces, partly by marryingElizabeth of York, a Yorkist heir. Through skill and ability, Henry re-established absolute supremacy in the realm, and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end.[237][238] The reign of the second Tudor king,Henry VIII, was one of great political change. Religious upheaval and disputes with thePope, and the fact that his marriage toCatherine of Aragon produced only one surviving child, a daughter, led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish theChurch of England (the Anglican Church) and divorce his wife to marryAnne Boleyn.[239]
Wales – which had been conquered centuries earlier, but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under theLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.[240] Henry VIII's son and successor, the youngEdward VI, continued with further religious reforms, but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis. He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half-sisterMary I to succeed, and therefore drew up a will designatingLady Jane Grey as his heiress. Jane's reign, however, lasted only nine days; with tremendous popular support, Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign. Mary I marriedPhilip of Spain, who was declared king and co-ruler. He pursued disastrous wars in France and she attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism (burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process). Upon her death in 1558, the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half-sisterElizabeth I. England returned toProtestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World.[241][242]
Elizabeth I's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England. Since she had no children, she was succeeded by KingJames VI of Scotland, who was the great-grandson of Henry VIII's older sister and hence Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed. James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the "Union of the Crowns". James I & VI became the first monarch to style himself "King of Great Britain" in 1604.[243]
For the history of the British monarchy after 1603, seeHistory of the monarchy of the United Kingdom.