Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History of the British Isles |
 |
Thehistory of the British Isles began with its sporadic human habitation during thePalaeolithic from around 900,000 years ago. TheBritish Isles has been continually occupied since the earlyHolocene, the currentgeological epoch, which started around 11,700 years ago.Mesolithic hunter-gatherers migrated from theContinent soon afterwards at a time when there was no sea barrier between Britain and Europe, but there was between Britain and Ireland. There were almost complete population replacements by migrations from the Continent at the start of theNeolithic around 4,100 BC and theBronze Age around 2,500 BC. Later migrations contributed to the political and cultural fabric of the islands and the transition from tribal societies to feudal ones at different times in different regions.
England andScotland were sovereign kingdoms until 1603, and then legally separate under one monarch until 1707, when they united as one kingdom. Wales and Ireland were composed of several independent kingdoms with shifting boundaries until the medieval period.
TheBritish monarch washead of state of all of the countries of the British Isles from theUnion of the Crowns in 1603 until the enactment of theRepublic of Ireland Act in 1949.
ThePalaeolithic andMesolithic, also known as the Old and Middle Stone Ages, were characterised by ahunter-gatherer society and a reliance on stone tool technologies.
TheLower Palaeolithic period in the British Isles saw the region's first known habitation by early hominids, specifically the extinctHomo heidelbergensis. This period saw many changes in the environment, encompassing severalglacial andinterglacial episodes greatly affecting human settlement in the region. Providing dating for this distant period is difficult and contentious. The inhabitants of the region at this time were bands ofhunter-gatherers who roamed Northern Europe following herds of animals, or who supported themselves by fishing. One of the most prominent archaeological sites dating to this period is that ofBoxgrove Quarry in West Sussex, southernEngland.
By the Mesolithic,Homo sapiens, or modern humans, were the only hominid species to still survive in the British Isles. There was then limited occupation byAhrensburgian hunter gatherers, but this came to an end when there was a final downturn in temperature which lasted from around 9,400 to 9,200 BC.Mesolithic people occupied Britain by around 9,000 BC, and it has been occupied ever since.[1] By 8000 BC temperatures were higher than today, and birch woodlands spread rapidly,[2] but there was acold spell around 6,200 BC which lasted about 150 years.[3] The British Isles were linked to continental Europe by a territory namedDoggerland. The plains of Doggerland were thought to have finally been submerged around 6500 to 6000 BC,[4] but recent evidence suggests that the bridge may have lasted until between 5800 and 5400 BC, and possibly as late as 3800 BC.[5]
Around 4000 BC migrants beganarriving from central Europe. Although the earliest indisputably acknowledged languages spoken in the British Isles belonged to the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family it is not known what language these early farming people spoke. These migrants brought new ideas, leading to a radical transformation of society and landscape that has been called theNeolithic Revolution. The Neolithic period in the British Isles was characterised by the adoption ofagriculture andsedentary living. To make room for the new farmland, these early agricultural communities undertook massdeforestation across the islands, dramatically and permanently transforming the landscape. At the same time, new types of stone tools requiring more skill began to be produced; new technologies included polishing.
The Neolithic also saw the construction of a wide variety of monuments in the landscape, many of which weremegalithic in nature. The earliest of these are thechambered tombs of the Early Neolithic, although in the Late Neolithic this form of monumentalisation was replaced by the construction ofstone circles, a trend that would continue into the followingBronze Age. These constructions are taken to reflect ideological changes, with new ideas about religion, ritual and social hierarchy.
In the British Isles, theBronze Age saw the transformation of British and Irish society and landscape. It saw the adoption of agriculture, as communities gave up their hunter-gatherer modes of existence to begin farming. During the British Bronze Age, largemegalithic monuments similar to those from the Late Neolithic continued to be constructed or modified, including such sites asAvebury,Stonehenge,Silbury Hill andMust Farm. This has been described as a time "when elaborate ceremonial practices emerged among some communities of subsistence agriculturalists of western Europe".[6]
As its name suggests, the British Iron Age is also characterised by the adoption ofiron, a metal which was used to produce a variety of different tools, ornaments and weapons.
In the course of the first millennium BC, and possibly earlier, some combination oftrans-cultural diffusion and immigration from continental Europe resulted in the establishment ofCeltic languages in the islands, eventually giving rise to theInsular Celtic group. What languages were spoken in the islands before is unknown, though they are assumed to have beenPre-Indo-European.[7]
In 55 and 54 BC, the Roman generalGaius Julius Caesar launched twoseparate invasions of the British Isles, though neither resulted in a full Roman occupation of the island. In 43 AD, southern Britain became part of theRoman Empire. OnNero's accession Roman Britain extended as far north asLindum (Lincoln).Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror ofMauretania (modern-dayAlgeria andMorocco), then becamegovernor of Britain, where he spent most of his governorship campaigning in Wales. Eventually in 60 AD he penned up the last resistance and the last of thedruids in the island ofMona (Anglesey). Paulinus led his army across theMenai Strait and massacred the druids and burnt their sacred groves. At the moment of triumph, news came of theBoudican revolt inEast Anglia.[8]
The suppression of the Boudican revolt was followed by a period of expansion of the Roman province, including the subjugation of south Wales. Between 77 and 83 AD the new governorGnaeus Julius Agricola led a series of campaigns which enlarged the province significantly, taking in north Wales, northern Britain, and most ofCaledonia (Scotland). TheCelts fought with determination and resilience, but faced a superior, professional army, and it is likely that between 100,000 and 250,000 may have perished in theconquest period.[9]
The early medieval period saw a series ofinvasions of Britain by theGermanic-speakingAngles andSaxons, beginning in the 5th century. Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were formed and, through wars with British states, gradually came to cover the territory of present-day England. Scotland was divided between thePicts,Dál Riata, theKingdom of Strathclyde and the Angles.[10] Around 600, seven principal kingdoms had emerged, beginning the so-called period of theHeptarchy. During that period, the Anglo-Saxon states wereChristianised (the conversion of the British ones had begun much earlier).
In the 9th century,Vikings fromScandinaviaconquered most of England and the Scots and Picts were combined to form theKingdom of Alba.[11] Only the Kingdom of Wessex underAlfred the Great survived and even managed to re-conquer and unify England for much of the 10th century, before a new series of Danish raids in the late 10th century and early 11th century culminated in the wholesale subjugation of England to Denmark under Sweyn Forkbeard andCanute the Great. Danish rule was overthrown and the local House of Wessex was restored to power underEdward the Confessor for about two decades until his death in 1066.
In 1066,William, Duke of Normandy claimed the English throne and invaded England. He defeated KingHarold Godwinson at theBattle of Hastings. Proclaiming himself to be King William I, he strengthened his regime by appointing loyal members of the Norman elite to many positions of authority, building a system of castles across the country and ordering a census of his new kingdom, theDomesday Book. The Late Medieval period was characterized by many battles between England and France, coming to a head in theHundred Years' War from which France emerged victorious. The English monarchs throughout the Late Medieval period belonged to the houses of Plantagenet, Lancaster, and York.[12][13]
Under John Balliol, in 1295, Scotland entered into theAuld Alliance with France. In 1296, England invaded Scotland, but in the following yearWilliam Wallace defeated the English army at theBattle of Stirling Bridge. However, KingEdward I of England came north to defeat Wallace himself at theBattle of Falkirk.[14] In 1320, theDeclaration of Arbroath, seen as an important document in the development of Scottish national identity, led to the recognition of Scottish independence by major European dynasties.[15] In 1328, theTreaty of Edinburgh-Northampton with England recognised Scottish independence underRobert the Bruce.[16]
Major historical events in the early modern period include theEnglish Renaissance, theEnglish Reformation andScottish Reformation, theEnglish Civil War, the Restoration ofCharles II, theGlorious Revolution, theTreaty of Union, theScottish Enlightenment and the formation of theFirst British Empire.
TheKingdom of Ireland was a settler state; the monarch was the incumbent monarch of England and later of Great Britain.[17] TheLord Lieutenant of Ireland headed the government on behalf of the monarch. He was assisted by theChief Secretary of Ireland. Both were responsible to the government in London rather than to theParliament of Ireland. Before theConstitution of 1782, the Irish parliament was alsoseverely fettered, and decisions in Irish courts could be overturned on appeal to the BritishHouse of Lords in London.
The Anglo-Irish ruling class gained a degree of independence in the 1780s thanks toHenry Grattan.[18] During this time the effects of thepenal laws on the primarily Roman Catholic population were reduced, and some property-owning Catholics were granted the franchise in 1794; however, they were still excluded from becoming members of theIrish House of Commons. This brief period of limited independence came to an end following theIrish Rebellion of 1798, which occurred during theBritish war with revolutionary France. The British government's fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about bylegislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801. The Irish had been led to believe by the British that their loss of legislative independence would be compensated for withCatholic Emancipation, i.e. by the removal ofcivil disabilities placed upon Roman Catholics in both Great Britain and Ireland. However, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his government's attempts to introduce it.[19]
During theWar of the Second Coalition (1799–1801),William Pitt the Younger (1759–1806) provided strong leadership in London.[20] Britain occupied most of the French and Dutch overseas possessions, the Netherlands having become a satellite state of France in 1796. After a short peace, in May 1803, war was declared again.[21] Napoleon's plans to invade Britain failed, chiefly due to the inferiority of his navy. In 1805 Lord Nelson's fleet decisively defeated the French and Spanish atTrafalgar, ending any hopes Napoleon had to wrest control of the oceans away from the British.[22]
TheBritish Army remained a minimal threat to France; it maintained a standing strength of just 220,000 men at the height of the Napoleonic Wars, whereas France's armies exceeded a million men—in addition to the armies of numerous allies and several hundred thousandnational guardsmen that Napoleon could draft into the French armies when they were needed. Although the Royal Navy effectively disrupted France's extra-continental trade—both by seizing and threatening French shipping and by seizing French colonial possessions—it could do nothing about France's trade with the major continental economies and posed little threat to French territory in Europe. France's population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain.[23]
In 1806, Napoleon set up theContinental System to end British trade with French-controlled territories. However Britain had great industrial capacity and mastery of the seas. It built up economic strength through trade and the Continental System was largely ineffective. As Napoleon realized that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia, he invaded those two countries. He tied down his forces in Spain, and lost very badly in Russia in 1812.[24] The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent. The Duke of Wellington and his army of British and Portuguese gradually pushed the French out of Spain, and in early 1814, as Napoleon was being driven back in the east by the Prussians, Austrians, and Russians, Wellington invaded southern France. After Napoleon's surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned, but when he escaped back into France in 1815, the British and their allies had to fight him again. The armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once and for all at Waterloo.[25]
.jpg)
Simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes and British impressment of American sailors led to theWar of 1812 with the United States. A central event in American history, it was little noticed in Britain, where all attention was focused on the struggle with France. The British could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814. American frigates also inflicted a series of embarrassing defeats on the British navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe. The Duke of Wellington argued that an outright victory over the U.S. was impossible because the Americans controlled the western Great Lakes and had destroyed the power of Britain's Indian allies. A full-scale British invasion was defeated in upstate New York. Peace was agreed to at the end of 1814, but unaware of this,Andrew Jackson won a great victory over the British at theBattle of New Orleans in January 1815 (news took several weeks to cross the Atlantic before the advent of steam ships). The Treaty of Ghent subsequently ended the war with no territorial changes. It was the last war between Britain and the United States.[26]
Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars a very different country than it had been in 1793. As industrialisation progressed, society changed, becoming more urban and less rural. The postwar period saw an economic slump, and poor harvests and inflation caused widespread social unrest. Europe after 1815 was on guard against a return of Jacobinism, and even liberal Britain saw the passage of the Six Acts in 1819, which proscribed radical activities. By the end of the 1820s, along with a general economic recovery, many of these repressive laws were repealed and in 1828 new legislation guaranteed the civil rights of religious dissenters.[27][28]
A weak ruler as regent (1811–1820) and king (1820–1830), George IV let his ministers take full charge of government affairs, playing a far lesser role than his father, George III. His governments, with little help from the king, presided over victory in the Napoleonic Wars, negotiated the peace settlement, and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed.[29] His brotherWilliam IV ruled (1830–37), but was little involved in politics. His reign saw several reforms: thepoor law was updated,child labour was restricted,slavery was abolished in nearly all theBritish Empire, and, most important, theReform Act 1832 refashioned the British electoral system.[30]
There were no major wars until theCrimean War (1853–1856).[31] While Prussia, Austria, and Russia, as absolute monarchies, tried to suppress liberalism wherever it might occur, the British came to terms with new ideas. Britain intervened in Portugal in 1826 to defend a constitutional government there and recognising the independence of Spain's American colonies in 1824.[32] British merchants and financiers, and later railway builders, played major roles in the economies of most Latin American nations.[33]
TheWhig Party recovered its strength and unity by supporting moral reforms, especially the reform of the electoral system, the abolition of slavery and emancipation of the Catholics.Catholic emancipation was secured in theCatholic Relief Act 1829, which removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland.[34]
The Whigs became champions of Parliamentary reform. They madeLord Grey prime minister 1830–1834, and theReform Act 1832 became their signature measure. It broadened the franchise and ended the system of "rotten borough" and "pocket boroughs" (where elections were controlled by powerful families), and instead redistributed power on the basis of population. It added 217,000 voters to an electorate of 435,000 in England and Wales. The main effect of the act was to weaken the power of the landed gentry, and enlarge the power of the professional and business middle-class, which now for the first time had a significant voice in Parliament. However, the great majority of manual workers, clerks, and farmers did not have enough property to qualify to vote. The aristocracy continued to dominate the government, the Army and Royal Navy, and high society.[34] After parliamentary investigations demonstrated the horrors of child labour, limited reforms were passed in 1833.
Chartism emerged after the 1832 Reform Bill failed to give the vote to the working class. Activists denounced the "betrayal" of the working classes and the "sacrificing" of their "interests" by the "misconduct" of the government. In 1838, Chartists issued the People's Charter demanding manhood suffrage, equal sized election districts, voting by ballots, payment of Members of Parliament (so that poor men could serve), annual Parliaments, and abolition of property requirements. Theruling class saw the movement as dangerous, so the Chartists were unable to force serious constitutional debate. Historians see Chartism as both a continuation of the 18th century fight against corruption and as a new stage in demands for democracy in an industrial society.[35] In 1832 Parliament abolished slavery in the Empire with theSlavery Abolition Act 1833. The government purchased the slaves for £20,000,000 (the money went to rich plantation owners who mostly lived in England), and freed the slaves, especially those in the Caribbean sugar islands.[36]
Prime Ministers of the period included:William Pitt the Younger,Lord Grenville,Duke of Portland,Spencer Perceval,Lord Liverpool,George Canning,Lord Goderich,Duke of Wellington,Lord Grey,Lord Melbourne, andSir Robert Peel.
The Victorian era was the period ofQueen Victoria's rule between 1837 and 1901 which signified the height of the BritishIndustrial Revolution and the apex of theBritish Empire. Scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with the passage of theReform Act 1832. The era was preceded by theRegency era and succeeded by theEdwardian period. Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power, with the introduction of steam ships, railroads, photography, and the telegraph. Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics.[37]
The Great London Exhibition of 1851 clearly demonstrated Britain's dominance in engineering and industry; that lasted until the rise of the United States and Germany in the 1890s. Using the imperial tools of free trade and financial investment,[38] it exerted major influence on many countries outside Europe, especially in Latin America and Asia. Thus Britain had both a formal Empire based on British rule as well as an informal one based on the British pound.[39]
One nagging fear was the possible collapse of the Ottoman Empire. It was well understood that a collapse of that country would set off a scramble for its territory and possibly plunge Britain into war. To head that off Britain sought to keep the Russians from occupying Constantinople and taking over theBosporous Strait, as well as fromthreatening India via Afghanistan.[40] In 1853, Britain and France intervened in theCrimean War against Russia. Despite mediocre generalship, they managed to capture the Russian port ofSevastopol, compellingTsar Nicholas I to ask for peace. It was a frustrating war with very high casualty rates—the iconic hero wasFlorence Nightingale.[41][42]
Thenext Russo-Ottoman war in 1877 led to another European intervention, although this time at the negotiating table. TheCongress of Berlin blocked Russia from imposing the harsh Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottoman Empire.[43] Despite its alliance with the French in the Crimean War, Britain viewed the Second Empire ofNapoleon III with some distrust, especially as the emperor constructed ironclad warships and began returning France to a more active foreign policy.[44]
During theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865), British leaders favoured the Confederacy, a major source of cotton for textile mills. Prince Albert was effective in defusing awar scare in late 1861. The British people, however, who depended heavily on American food imports, generally favoured the Union. What little cotton was available came from New York, as the blockade by the US Navy shut down 95% of Southern exports to Britain. In September 1862,Abraham Lincoln announced theEmancipation Proclamation. Since support of the Confederacy now meant supporting the institution of slavery, there was no possibility of European intervention.[45] The British sold arms to both sides, built blockade runners for a lucrative trade with the Confederacy, and surreptitiously allowed warships to be built for the Confederacy. The warships caused a major diplomatic row that was resolved in theAlabama Claims in 1872, in the Americans' favour.[46]
.jpg)
In 1867, Britain united most of itsNorth American colonies asCanada, giving it self-government and responsibility for its own defence, but Canada did not have an independent foreign policy until 1931. Several of the colonies temporarily refused to join the Dominion despite pressure from both Canada and Britain; the last one,Newfoundland, held out until 1949. The second half of the 19th century saw ahuge expansion of Britain's colonial empire, mostly inAfrica. A talk of the Union Jack flying "from Cairo to Cape Town" only became a reality at the end of theGreat War. Having possessions on six continents, Britain had to defend all of its empire and did so with a volunteer army, the onlygreat power in Europe to have no conscription. Some questioned whether the country was overstretched.
The rise of theGerman Empire since its creation in 1871 posed a new challenge, for it (along with the United States), threatened to usurp Britain's place as the world's foremost industrial power. Germany acquired a number of colonies in Africa and the Pacific, but ChancellorOtto von Bismarck succeeded in achieving general peace through his balance of power strategy. WhenWilliam II became emperor in 1888, he discarded Bismarck, began using bellicose language, and planned to build a navy to rival Britain's.[47]
Ever since Britain had wrested control of theCape Colony from the Netherlands during theNapoleonic Wars, it had co-existed with Dutch settlers who had migrated further away from the Cape and created two republics of their own. The British imperial vision called for control over these new countries, and the Dutch-speaking "Boers" (or "Afrikaners") fought back in theWar in 1899–1902. Outgunned by a mighty empire, the Boers waged a guerrilla war (which certain other British territories would later employ to attain independence). This gave the British regulars a difficult fight, but their weight of numbers, superior equipment, and often brutal tactics, eventually brought about a British victory. The war had been costly in human rights and was widely criticised by Liberals in Britain and worldwide. However, the United States gave its support. The Boer republics were merged into theUnion of South Africa in 1910; this had internal self-government, but its foreign policy was controlled by London and it was an integral part of the British Empire.[48][page needed]
.jpg)
Part of the agreement which led to the1800 Act of Union stipulated that the Penal Laws in Ireland were to be repealed andCatholic emancipation granted. However KingGeorge III blocked emancipation, arguing that to grant it would break hiscoronation oath to defend theAnglican Church. A campaign by the lawyerDaniel O'Connell, and the death of George III, led to the concession of Catholic Emancipation in 1829, allowing Roman Catholics to sit in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. But Catholic Emancipation was not O'Connell's ultimate goal, which was Repeal of the Act of Union with Great Britain. On 1 January 1843 O'Connell confidently, but wrongly, declared that Repeal would be achieved that year. Whenpotato blight hit the island in 1846, much of the rural population was left without food, becausecash crops were being exported to pay rents.[49][50]
British politicians such as the Prime MinisterRobert Peel were at this time wedded to theeconomic policy oflaissez-faire, which argued against state intervention. While funds were raised by private individuals and charities, lack of adequate action let the problem become a catastrophe. Cottiers (or farm labourers) were largely wiped out during what is known in Ireland as the "Great Hunger". A significant minority electedUnionists, who championed the Union. AChurch of Ireland formerTory barrister turned nationalist campaigner,Isaac Butt, established a new moderate nationalist movement, theHome Rule League, in the 1870s. After Butt's death the Home Rule Movement, or theIrish Parliamentary Party as it had become known, was turned into a major political force under the guidance ofWilliam Shaw and a radical young Protestant landowner,Charles Stewart Parnell.[51]
Parnell's movement campaigned for "Home Rule", by which they meant that Ireland would govern itself as a region within Great Britain. Two Home Rule Bills (1886 and 1893) were introduced by Liberal prime ministerWilliam Ewart Gladstone, but neither became law, mainly due to opposition from the Conservative Party and theHouse of Lords. The issue was a source of contention throughout Ireland, as a significant majority ofUnionists (largely based inUlster), opposed Home Rule, fearing that aCatholic Nationalist ("Rome Rule") Parliament in Dublin would discriminate against them, impose Roman Catholic doctrine, and impose tariffs on industry. While most of Ireland was primarily agricultural, six of the counties in Ulster were the location of heavy industry and would be affected by any tariff barriers imposed.[52]
Queen Victoria, who had reigned since 1837, died in 1901 and was succeeded by her son,Edward VII, who, in turn, was succeeded by his son,George V, when he died in 1910. The British Empire flourished but there was a bitterly foughtSecond Boer War inSouth Africa. In 1914, Britain entered theFirst World War by declaring war onGermany. Nearly a million Britons were killed in the war, which lasted until Germany's surrender on 11 November 1918.[53]
Home Rule in Ireland, which had been a major political issue since the late 19th century but put on hold by the war, was somewhat resolved after theIrish War of Independence brought the British Government to a stalemate in 1922. Negotiations led to the formation of theIrish Free State. However, in order to appease Unionists in the north, the north-eastern six counties remained as part of the U.K., forming Northern Ireland with its own Parliament at Stormont in Belfast.
Liberals were in power for much of the early 20th century under Prime MinistersCampbell-Bannerman,Asquith andLloyd George. After 1914, theLiberal party suffered a sharp decline. The newLabour party, whose leaderRamsay MacDonald led two minority governments, swiftly became theConservatives' main opposition, and Britain's largest party of the left.
KingEdward VIII succeeded his father George V in January 1936, but was not allowed by the government to marryWallis Simpson, a divorcee. In December, he abdicated in order to marry Simpson. His brotherGeorge VI was crowned king.
In order to avoid another European conflict, Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain attempted to appease German ChancellorAdolf Hitler, who was expanding his country's territory across Central Europe. Despite proclaiming that he has achieved "peace for our time", Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, following Hitler's invasion of Poland two days earlier. The U.K. thus joined theAllied forces in opposition to the Axis forces ofNazi Germany andFascist Italy. For the first time, civilians were not exempt from the war, as London suffered nightly bombings duringthe Blitz. Much of London was destroyed, with 1,400,245 buildings destroyed or damaged.[54] The only part of the British Isles to beoccupied by enemy forces were the Channel Islands.[55] At the war's end in 1945, however, the U.K. emerged as one of the victorious nations.
Winston Churchill, who had been leader of the wartime coalition government, suffered a surprising landslide defeat toClement Attlee's Labour party in 1945 elections. Attlee created aWelfare State in Britain, which most notably provided free healthcare under theNational Health Service.
On the international stage, the second half of the 20th century was dominated by theCold War between the Soviet Union and its socialist allies and the United States and its capitalist allies; the U.K. was a key supporter of the latter, joining the anti-Soviet military allianceNATO in 1949. During this period, the U.K. fought in theKorean War (1950–1953). The Cold War shaped world affairs until victory was achieved in 1989.[56] The major parties largely agreed on foreign and domestic policy—except nationalization of some industries—in an era ofPost-war consensus that lasted into the 1970s.[57]
In 1951, Churchill and the Tories returned to power; they would govern uninterrupted for the next 13 years. KingGeorge VI died in 1952, and was succeeded by his eldest daughter,Elizabeth II, who reigned until her death on 8 September 2022. Churchill was succeeded in 1955 bySir Anthony Eden, whose premiership was ruined by theSuez Crisis, in which Britain, France and Israel plotted to attack Egypt after its PresidentNasser nationalised theSuez Canal. Eden's successor, Harold Macmillan, split the Conservatives when Britain applied to join theEuropean Economic Community, but French PresidentCharles de Gaulle vetoed the application.
Labour returned to power in 1964 underHarold Wilson, who brought in a number of social reforms, including the legalisation of abortion, the abolition of capital punishment and the decriminalisation of homosexuality. In 1973, Conservative prime ministerEdward Heath succeeded in securing U.K. membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), what would later become known as the European Union. Wilson, having lost the 1970 election to Heath, returned to power in 1974; however, Labour's reputation was harmed by thewinter of discontent of 1978-9 underJim Callaghan, which enabled the Conservatives to re-take control of Parliament in 1979, underMargaret Thatcher, Britain's first female prime minister.
Although Thatcher's economic reforms made her initially unpopular, her decision in 1982 to retake theFalkland Islands from invading Argentine forces, in theFalklands War, changed her fortunes and enabled alandslide victory in 1983. After winning an unprecedented third election in 1987, however, Thatcher's popularity began to fade and she was replaced by her chancellorJohn Major in 1990.[58]
Tensions between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland came to a head in the late 1960s, when nationalist participants in a civil rights march were shot by members of theB Specials, a reserve police force manned almost exclusively by unionists. From this point theProvisional Irish Republican Army, also known as the Provos or simply the IRA, began a bombing campaign throughout the U.K., beginning a period known asThe Troubles, which lasted until the late 1990s.
Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales and Elizabeth's eldest son marriedLady Diana Spencer in 1981; the couple had two children, William and Harry, but divorced in 1992, during which year Prince Andrew and Princess Anne also separated from their spouses, leading the Queen to call the year her 'annus horribilis'. In 1997, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris, leading to a mass outpouring of grief across the United Kingdom, and indeed the world.
In 1997,Tony Blair was elected prime minister in a landslide victory for the so-called 'New Labour', economically following 'Third Way' programmes. Blair won re-election in 2001 and 2005, before handing over power to his chancellorGordon Brown in 2007. After a decade of prosperity both the U.K. and theRepublic of Ireland were affected by the global recession, which began in 2008. In 2010, the Conservative party formed a coalition government with theLiberal Democrats, with Tory leaderDavid Cameron as prime minister. In 2014, a referendum was held in Scotland onScottish independence; the Scottish electorate voted to remain within the United Kingdom.[59] In 2015 polling suggested ahung parliament was the most likely outcome in the General Election; however the Conservatives secured a slim majority.
.jpg)
After theSeptember 11 Attacks, the U.K. supported the U.S. in their "war on terror", and joined them in theWar in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and theinvasion of Iraq. London was attacked inJuly 2005. The U.K. also took a leading role in the2011 military intervention in Libya. In areferendum in 2016, the UK voted to leave theEuropean Union, which was done 31 January 2020. Negotiations between the UK and Ireland culminated in the controversial,threatenedNorthern Ireland Protocol, ratified January 2020 to create ade facto customs border along the Irish Sea to ensure uninterrupted trade between Northern Ireland and the Republic.[60]
After becoming prime minister and leader of the Conservative Party shortly after David Cameron's resignation following the Brexit result, anelection was called by Prime MinisterTheresa May (the former Home Secretary), in an attempt to gain a larger majority forBrexit negotiations and also as an advantage, as the Labour Party were doing badly in thepolls, the Conservative Party lost their majority despite winning a record number of votes, and were restricted to forming a "supply and confidence" deal, yet not a formal coalition with the Northern Irish unionist party, theDUP in order to have a working majority in the House of Commons.
Subsequent UK headlines focussed upon the calamitousGrenfell Tower fire that killed 72 inNorth Kensington on 14 June 2017, the deadliest structural fire in nearly three decades, which prompted an ongoing public inquiry; thenovichok nerve agentpoisoning of Russian double agentSergei Skripal and his wife Yulia inSalisbury on 4 March 2018, raising diplomatic tensions between the UK and Russia; and May's authorisation of air strikes againstBashar al-Assad'sSyria in the ongoingcivil war. Concurrently, Ireland elected its first openly gay taoiseachFine Gael'sLeo Varadkar to replace the embattledEnda Kenny on 13 June 2017 in an unprecedented coalition withFianna Fáil and theGreens; under Varadkar, GDP expanded some 8% in 2017 and 2018 before slowdowns in 2019 and then 2020.
May subsequently faced challenges to her premiership both within and without her party, surviving a vote of confidence in her leadership of the Conservative Party on 12 December 2018 by 200 MPs of the 159 votes required, and a motion of no confidence on 16 January 2019 by a margin of 19. May'sIrish backstop plan to keep Northern Ireland partially in the EU single market until a deal was made was consistently defeated in the House, forcing her to postpone the UK's scheduled departure date. She resigned as party leader and Prime Minister 27 March; in the subsequentleadership electionBoris Johnson (who served as foreign secretary in May's cabinet 2016–18) defeatedJeremy Hunt, was elected prime minister and secured the largest parliamentary majority in that May'sgeneral election since1987, securing an 80-seat majority against Labour'sJeremy Corbyn, who would be replaced as Leader of the Opposition by SirKeir Starmer 4 April 2020.
Under Johnson, Britain withdrew from the EU, and faced challenges, as did Ireland, from the ongoingCOVID-19 pandemic, which forced the countries into many months lockdown, imposing social distancing and mask-wearing requirements as millions, including Johnson and incumbent taoiseachMicheál Martin, contractedcoronavirus. The economy suffered greatly in both cases, but rebounded quickly; the two nations now face high inflation, economic cooldown and fears of recession. Negotiations after the2020 Irish general election secured the aforementioned coalition 15 June 2020 largely against the democratic socialistSinn Féin party, which became the second-largest party in the Dáil with 37 seats, the party's most since1923. Martin became taoiseach 27 June, and Varadkar will return December 2022.
Johnson was greatly damaged by a string of scandals between November 2021 and July 2022, including overhis attendance earlier in the pandemic of numerous parties which flouted the government's own lockdown restrictions, a string of electoral defeats, controversy involving several Tory MPs, includingOwen Paterson and SirGeoffrey Cox, and his awareness of allegations of sexual misconduct against former chief whipChris Pincher. Despite surviving a no-confidence vote 6 June by the slightest majority against any sitting Tory Prime Minister, 62 MPs resigned from government between 5–7 July, including Chancellor of the ExchequerRishi Sunak and Health SecretarySajid Javid, prompting his resignation the morning of 7 July.[61] He was replaced as prime minister by Foreign SecretaryLiz Truss 5 September, three days before the accession of KingCharles III on the death of Queen Elizabeth II.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)