Thehistory of literature is the historical development ofwritings inprose orpoetry that attempt to provideentertainment oreducation to the reader, as well as the development of theliterary techniques used in thecommunication of these pieces. Not all writings constituteliterature. Some recorded materials, such as compilations ofdata (e.g., acheck register) are not considered literature, and this article relates only to the evolution of the works defined above.
Early literature is derived fromstories told inhunter-gatherer bands throughoral tradition, includingmyth andfolklore.Storytelling emerged as the human mind evolved to applycausal reasoning and structure events into anarrative andlanguage, allowing early humans to share information with one another. Early storytelling provided opportunity to learn about dangers andsocial norms while also entertaining listeners.[1] Myth can be expanded to include all use of patterns and stories to make sense of the world, and it may be psychologically intrinsic to humans.Epic poetry is recognized as the pinnacle of ancient literature. These works are longnarrative poems that recount the feats of mythic heroes, often said to take place in the nation's early history.[2]
Sumerian literature is the oldest known literature, written inSumer. Types of literature were not clearly defined, and all Sumerian literature incorporated poetic aspects. Sumerian poems demonstrate basic elements of poetry, includinglines,imagery, andmetaphor. Humans, gods, talking animals, and inanimate objects were all incorporated as characters. Suspense and humor were both incorporated into Sumerian stories. These stories were primarily shared orally, though they were also recorded byscribes. Some works were associated with specificmusical instruments or contexts and may have been performed in specific settings. Sumerian literature did not usetitles, instead being referred to by the work's first line.[5]
Akkadian literature developed in subsequent Mesopotamian societies, such asBabylonia andAssyria, from the third to first millennia BC. During this time, it spread to other areas, including Egypt,Ugarit, andHattusa. TheAkkadian language was influenced by theSumerian language, and many elements of Sumerian literature were adopted in Akkadian literature. Many works of Akkadian literature were commissioned by kings that had scribes and scholars in their service. Some of these works served to celebrate the king or the divine, while others recorded information for religious practices or medicine. Poetry, proverbs, folktales, love lyrics, and accounts of disputes were all incorporated into Akkadian literature.[6]
Literature of theOld Kingdom of Egypt developed directly from practical use during theFifth Dynasty. Lists of offerings to the gods were rewritten as prayers, and statistical information about state officials was expanded intoautobiographies. These autobiographies were written to exemplify the virtues of their subjects and often incorporated a free flow style that blended prose and poetry. Kings were not written about beyond clerical recordings, but poetry was performed during the funerals of kings as part of a religious ritual. TheInstructions, a form ofwisdom literature that was popular during most of Ancient Egyptian history, taught maxims ofAncient Egyptian philosophy that combined pragmatic thought and religious speculation.[7]
These literary traditions continued to develop in theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt as autobiographies became more intricate. The role of the king in literature expanded during this period; royal testaments were written from the perspective of the king to his successor, and celebrations of the king and advocacy of strong leadership were included in autobiographies andInstructions.Fiction and analysis ofgood and evil also developed during this period.[7] During theNew Kingdom of Egypt, the popularity of wisdom literature and educational works persisted, though the use of teachings and stories was prioritized over the use of discourses. Entertainment literature was popular among the nobility during this period, incorporating aspects of narrative myth and folklore, religious hymns, love songs, and praise for the king and the city.[8]
Chinese mythology played a notable role in the earliest Chinese literature, though it was less prominent compared to mythological literature in other civilizations. By the time of theZhou dynasty, Chinese culture emphasized the community over the individual, discouraging mythological stories of great personages and characterization of the divine. Mythological literature was more common in the southernChu nation.[9] TheTao Te Ching and theZhuangzi are philosophical compilations that serve as the foundation of Taoism.[10]Confucius was a defining figure in ancient Chinesephilosophy andpolitics. He collected theSix Classics as founding texts ofConfucianism, and they became the central texts by which other works were compared in Chinese literary scholarship. Confucianism dominated literary tastes in Ancient China starting in theWarring States period.[11] The sayings of Confucius were later compiled into theAnalects by his students.[12]
Anthologies were common in Ancient China, and anthologizing was used as a means of literary criticism to determine literary classics.[11] TheClassic of Poetry, one of the Six Classics, is the oldest existing anthology of Chinese poetry. It comprises 305 works by anonymous authors dating from the 12th to 7th centuries BC. Prior to the collection of these works, poetic tradition in Ancient China was primarily oral.[13] TheChu Ci anthology is a volume of poems from the Warring States period written in Chu and traditionally attributed toSong yu andQu Yuan. These poems were written as rhapsodies that were meant to be recited with a specific tone rather than sung.[14] TheMusic Bureau was developed during the Zhou dynasty, establishing a governmental role for the collection of musical works and folk songs that would persist throughout Chinese history.[15]
Historical documents developed into an early form of literature during the Warring States period, as documentation was combined with narrative and sometimes with legendary accounts of history.[16] Two of the Six Classics, theBook of Documents and theSpring and Autumn Annals, are historical documents. The latter inspired works of historical commentary that became a genre in their own right, including theZuo Zhuan, theGongyang Zhuan, and theGuliang Zhuan. TheZuo Zhuan is considered to be the first large scale narrative work in Chinese literature.[17]The Art of War bySun Tzu was an influential book on military strategy that is still referenced in the modern era.[18]
Poetry written in the brief period of theQin dynasty has been entirely lost. Poetry in theHan dynasty diverged as several branches developed, including short length, paralleled exposition, rhymed exposition, and ancient style, andidealism also became popular during the Han dynasty.[11] TheNineteen Old Poems were written at this time, though how they came about is the subject of debate.[19] Poetry during this period abandoned tetrasyllabic verse in favor of pentasyllabic verse. The ballads of Chu spread through China and became widely popular, often focusing on concepts of inevitable destiny and fate.[20]
Political and argumentative literature by government officials dominated Chinese prose during this period, though even these works often engaged in lyricism and metaphor.Jia Yi was an essayist known for his emotional political treatises such asThe Faults of Qin.Chao Cuo was an essayist known for treatises that were meticulous rather than emotional. Confucianism continued to dictate philosophical works, though a movement of works criticizing contemporary application of Confucianism began withWang Chong in hisLunheng. Prose literature meant for entertainment also developed during this period.[21] Historical literature was revolutionized by theRecords of the Grand Historian, the first general history of ancient times and the largest work of literature to that point in time.[22]
Centralism declined during the Six Dynasties period, and Confucianism lost influence as a predominating ideology. This caused the rise of many local traditions of philosophical literature, including that of Taoist and Buddhist ideas.[23] Prose fiction during the Wei and Jin dynasties consisted mainly of supernatural folklore, including those presented as historical.[24] This tradition of supernatural fiction continued during the Northern and Southern dynasties with theRecords of Light and Shade attributed toLiu Yiqing [zh].[25] Another genre of prose was collections of short biographical or anecdotal impressions, of which onlyA New Account of the Tales of the World survives.[26]
Jian'an poetry developed from the literary tradition of Eastern Han, incorporating idiosyncrasies and strong demonstrations of emotion to express individualism. This movement was led by then-ruler of ChinaCao Cao. Thepoetry of Cao Cao consisted of ensemble songs published through the Music Bureau and performed with music.[27] TheSeven Sages of the Bamboo Grove were influential poets in the Wei dynasty mid-3rd century, addressing political and philosophical concerns directly in their poetry.[28] Chinese poetry developed significantly during theJin dynasty, incorporatingparallelism,prosody, and emotional expression through scenery.Zhang Hua,Lu Ji, andPan Yue are recognized as the great poets that developed early Western Jin poetry.[29]Zuo Si andLiu Kun were poets in later Western Jin.[30] In Eastern Jin, philosophical poetry went through a period of abstraction that removed much of its literary elements.Guo Pu andTao Yuanming were notable poets in Eastern Jin.[31]
The books that constitute theHebrew Bible developed over roughly a millennium, with the oldest texts originating from about the eleventh or tenth centuries BCE.[citation needed] They are edited works, being collections of various sources intricately and carefully woven together. The Old Testament was compiled and edited byvarious authors[39] over a period of centuries, with many scholars concluding that the Hebrew canon wassolidified by about the 3rd century BC.[40][41] TheNew Testament was an additional collection of books that supplemented the Hebrew Bible, consisting of thegospels that describedJesus and theepistles written by notable figures of earlyChristianity.[42]
A scene from theOdyssey portrayed in an Ancient Roman mosaic
Early Greek literature was composed indactylic hexameter.Homer is credited with the codification of epic poetry in Ancient Greece with theIliad and theOdyssey.Hesiod is credited with developing a literary tradition of poetry derived from catalogues and genealogies, such as theMegala Erga and theTheogony. Notable writers of religious literature also held similar prominence at the time, but these works have since been lost.[43] Notable among later Greek poets wasSappho, who contributed to the development oflyric poetry and was widely popular in antiquity.[44]
In theRoman Republic, literature took the form of tragedy, comedy, epic, and historical.Livius Andronicus is recognized as the originator of literature in the Latin language, and due to Rome's influence, the development of Latin literature often extended beyond the traditional boundaries of Rome.Plautus was an influential playwright known for his comedies that emphasized humor andpopular culture. The late republic saw the rise ofAugustan literature andClassical Latin, which was primarily prose and included the works ofCicero andSallust. Upon the formation of theRoman Empire, political commentary declined and prose went out of favor to be replaced by poetry. Poets such asVirgil,Horace,Propertius, andOvid are recognized as bringing about the Golden Age of Latin literature.[48] Virgil's epic poem theAeneid closely followed the formula established by Homer.[49]
Knowledge traditions in India handed down philosophical gleanings and theological concepts through the two traditions ofShruti andSmriti, meaningthat which is learnt andthat which is experienced, which included theVedas. It is generally believed that thePuranas are the earliest philosophical writings in Indian history, although linguistic works onSanskrit existed earlier than 1000 BC. Puranic works such as the Indian epics:Ramayana andMahabharata, have influenced countless other works, including BalineseKecak and other performances such as shadow puppetry (wayang), and many European works.Pali literature has an important position in the rise ofBuddhism.[53][54]Classical Sanskrit literature flowers in theMaurya andGupta periods, roughly spanning the 2nd century BC to the 8th century AD.Classical Tamil literature also emerged in the early historic period dating from 300 BC to 300 AD,[55][56] and is the earliest secular literature of India, mainly dealing with themes such as love and war. TheGupta period in India sees the flowering ofSanskrit drama, classicalSanskrit poetry and the compilation of thePuranas.
After the fall of Rome (in roughly 476), many of the literary approaches and styles invented by the Greeks and Romans fell out of favor in Europe. In themillennium or so that intervened between Rome's fall and theFlorentine Renaissance, medieval literature focused more and more on faith and faith-related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had not been preserved in Europe, and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond. Although much had been lost to the ravages of time (and to catastrophe, as in the burning of the Library of Alexandria), many Greek works remained extant: they were preserved and copied carefully by Muslim scribes. What little there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions. Some of these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described asMatter of Rome,Matter of France andMatter of Britain.[citation needed]
Around 400 AD, thePrudentiPsychomachia began the tradition of allegorical tales. Poetry flourished, however, in the hands of thetroubadours, whose courtly romances andchanson de geste amused and entertained the upper classes who were their patrons. TheFirst Crusade in 1095 also affected literature. For instance the image of theknight would take on a different significance. TheIslamic emphasis on scientific investigation and the preservation of the Greek philosophical writings would also affect European literature.[citation needed]
Hagiographies, or "lives of thesaints", were frequent among early medieval European texts. The writings ofBede—Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum—and others continue the faith-based historical tradition begun by Eusebius in the early 4th century. Between Augustine andThe Bible, religious authors had numerous aspects of Christianity that needed further explication and interpretation.Thomas Aquinas, more than any other single person, was able to turntheology into a kind of science, in part because he was heavily influenced by Aristotle, whose works were returning to Europe in the 13th century. Playwriting essentially ceased, except for themystery plays and thepassion plays that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common people.[citation needed]
Latin continued to be used as aliterary language in medieval Europe. Though it was also spoken, it was primarily learned and expressed through literature, and scientific literature was typically written in Latin.[57] Christianity became increasingly prominent in medieval European literature, also written in Latin. Religious literature in other languages proliferated during the 13th century as those who were not educated in Latin sought religious literature that they could understand. Women in particular were not permitted to learn Latin, and an extensive body of religious literature in many languages was written by women at this time.[58]
Early medieval literature in England was written inOld English, which is not mutually intelligible with modern English. Works of this time include the epic poemBeowulf andArthurian fantasy based on the legendary character ofKing Arthur. Literature in the modern English language began withGeoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, known forThe Canterbury Tales.[59]
The Divine Comedy byDante Alighieri was completed circa 1321. Organized into three parts calledcantiche,Divine Comedy is a narrative poem that is regarded as a preeminent work in Italian literature.[60] It follows Dante's journey into three different realms of the dead,Inferno (Hell),Purgatorio (Purgatory), andParadiso (Paradise), with the Roman poetVirgil andBeatrice, Dante's idealized woman, guiding him. ThoughDivine Comedy was largely ignored by the literary world during and a while after its publication, it gained further acclaim in the English-speaking world after BritishRomanticist poet William Blake and other 19th century Romanticist writers "rediscovered" the poem, influencing later writers such asT.S. Eliot andEzra Pound. The narrative reflects the medieval philosophy of the afterlife as it existed in the 14th centuryWestern Church as well as established theTuscan language as the standardItalian language.The Decameron byGiovanni Boccaccio was published in 1351, and it influenced European literature over the following centuries. Its framing device of ten individuals each telling ten stories introduced the termnovella and inspired later works, including Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales.[61]
The most well known fiction from the Islamic world wasThe Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by thePersian QueenScheherazade. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[62] This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first byAntoine Galland.[63] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[64]
Ferdowsi'sShahnameh, the national epic ofIran, is a mythical and heroic retelling ofPersian history and the longest epic poem ever written. FromPersian culture the book which would, eventually, become the most famous in the west is theRubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The Rubáiyát is a collection of poems by thePersian mathematician and astronomerOmar Khayyám (1048–1122). "Rubaiyat" means "quatrains": verses of four lines.Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story.
Li Po Chanting a Poem, byLiang K'ai (13th century)
Lu Sidao,Xue Daoheng [zh], andYang Su were notable poets of the earlySui dynasty, with Yang moving away from the dominant traditions of Southern poetry.[67] In the Sui and earlyTang dynasties, literature was supported by the various emperors, who commissioned many works and wrote some of their own. Poetry in this period followed the Palace Style until it diverged with the work of theFour Paragons.[68]Wang Changling andLi Bai are recognized among the great poets of High Tang.[69] Landscape poetry and frontier poetry were both influential during the Tang dynasty.[70] Tang poetry also includedcí, a type of lyric poetry.[71] Chinese poetry increased focus on politics, human suffering, and realism in the mid-Tang dynasty, such as in the works ofDu Fu.[72] Chinese poetry diverged into two schools in the early-9th century; poets such asMeng Jiao andHan Yu wrote about the unusual, while poets such asBai Juyi andYuan Zhen emphasized simplicity.[73] The final years of the Tang dynasty saw the rise oflyric poetry anderotic poetry.Li Shangyin andWen Tingyun were influential poets during this period.[74]
Fictional narrative became prominent in the Tang dynasty, written with looser restrictions on form and length.[75] Fiction in the mid-Tang period focused primarily on social commentary and romantic love, and notable authors during this time includedShen Jiji and Yuan Zhen.[76] Collections of stories became more common in the Late Tang period, particularly those of chivalrous tales by authors such asPei Xing. Popular literature of the time included transformation text, vernacular story,sutra, song, and rhapsody.[77] The style of prose was not initially developed during the Tang dynasty. Parallel prose remained popular in the early Tang dynasty, though writers such as Li Bai moved away from strict form that was common at the time.[78] Han Yu promoted the use of classical prose in the style of ancient Confucisionist works.[79] Printing began in Tang dynasty China. A copy of theDiamond Sutra, a keyBuddhist text, found sealed in a cave in China in the early 20th century, is the oldest known dated printed book, with a printed date of 868. The method used wasblock printing.[citation needed]
Printing first became widespread in theNorthern Song. Northern Song lyric poetry was developed byYan Shu,Liu Yong, andZhang Xian, and it became a popular pastime among the lower class.[80]Ouyang Xiu developed the popular style of lyric poetry whileYan Jidao developed the refined style.[81] Lyric poetry contrasted with the more formalshi poetry that followed canonical literary forms and was used by scholars.[80] Political pressures heavily influenced the poetry of scholars in the Northern Song, as proficiency in older styles was a requirement for scholars to enter into civil service.[82] Politics and Confucianism in particular increasingly influenced poetry in Northern Song. Poets such asMei Yaochen andSu Shunquin developed the style of poetry used in the Middle Northern Song.[83]Ouyang Xiu was a prominent literary scholar in Northern Song that refined the mainstream literary style of the time,[84] andSu Shi is said to have perfected it.[85]
Chen Yuyi defined the style of Early Southern Song poetry.[86]Lu You was a poet in the Middle Southern Song that wrote extensively about political life in civil service and frustration with the dynasty's weakened position in theJin–Song Wars, whileXin Qiji was a Middle Southern Song poet that wrote on similar topics from a military perspective.[87] Poetic style did not advance significantly in the Late Southern Song, thoughYan Yu'sCanglang Shihua was influential in poetic theory.[88] Classical poetry in the Early Jin emphasized emotion, while elegance was emphasized later in the Jin dynasty.[89]
Popular fiction was typically performed in the Song dynasty, made up primarily of small talk fiction and historical tales. Classical prose fiction in the Song dynasty often sacrificed linguistic quality and imagination for plain language and moral teaching.Zaju variety plays developed during the Song dynasty as a predecessor to drama.[90] The scientist, statesman, and generalShen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) was the author of theDream Pool Essays (1088), a large book of scientific literature that included the oldest description of the magnetizedcompass. During the Song dynasty, there was also the enormous historical work of theZizhi Tongjian, compiled into 294 volumes of 3 million writtenChinese characters by the year 1084 AD.[citation needed] TheJin dynasty saw advances in popular literature, includingRomance of the Western Chamber.[91]
Drama was significantly developed as a literary form in theYuan dynasty and made up much of the era's fictional works.[92] Variety plays were influential in the Early Yuan period, withKhanbaliq, present-dayBeijing, as the cultural center of variety plays.[93] As the 14th century began, variety play writers moved toHangzhou, though variety plays declined and they did not achieve the same prominence.[94] Thenanxi was developed as a genre of play at the same time, reflecting the unique political life of the Yuan dynasty in which civil service,infidelity, and inter-clan politics all played a major role.Tale of the Pipa byGao Ming was an influentialnanxi drama.[95]Qu was a common type of poetry in the Yuan dynasty that was used both as a standalone work and part of the structure of a play.[96]
Two of the earliest Chinese novels,Romance of the Three Kingdoms andWater Margin, first appeared in the Yuan dynasty.[97] Poetry in the Yuan dynasty remained the primary form of expression for classical writers, though the Song tradition of intellectual poetry was replaced by poetry that expressed strong emotion. Northern Yuan poetry was influenced by the works ofYuan Haowen while Southern Yuan poetry was influenced by Yan Yu.[92]
Japanese literature first diverged from Chinese literature around the eighth century.[98]Fudoki were eighth century records that were typically written in Chinese and documented both historical and mythological stories.[99] Folk ballads were also common, including those recorded in thefudoki and musical ballads. These ballads were written to be chanted and often had a syllabic structure, with thetanka being highly regarded in particular.[100] The writing ofwaka poetry became increasingly important in the Heian period as it became a necessary skill for the aristocracy in both social and courtship settings.[101]
TheMan'yōshū is the oldest collection of Japanese poetry, written in Japanese with Chinese characters throughMan'yōgana and compilingwaka poetry from the fifth to eighth centuries.[102] TheKokin Wakashū was a collection of ninth centurywaka poetry compiled by imperial command. While theMan'yōshū was varied in the classes and professions of its writers, the poems of theKokin Wakashū were limited to those of aristocratic poets.[103]The Tales of Ise is a collection of loosely connected poems and narratives based on the life ofAriwara no Narihira.[104]
Utsubo Monogatari andOchikubo Monogatari were early prose works from the 10th century that realistically portrayed the lives of the aristocracy, and the former is sometimes considered to be the first full-length novel.[105] At the same time, women of the aristocracy began keeping diaries that followed aristocratic life.[106]The Tale of Genji was the next major prose work in Japan, written in the 11th century.[107] Its use of realism and romantic idealization inspired later works of Heian period prose fiction, including historical works such asEiga Monogatari andŌkagami; romantic novels such asThe Tale of Sagoromo [ja],Yoru no Nezame,Hamamatsu Chūnagon Monogatari, andTorikaebaya Monogatari; and short story collections such asTsutsumi Chūnagon Monogatari.[108] While these stories typically portrayed the aristocracy,Konjaku Monogatarishū was written in the 12th century, compiling roughly one thousand stories from different walks of life in Japan, China, and India.[109] Japanese literature expanded beyond the aristocracy in the 13th century and became increasingly accessible to lower classes, often through the narration of religious texts such asThe Tale of the Heike byblind priests.[110] In the 14th and 15th centuries, poetry such asrenga and drama such asnoh andkyōgen was written by professional writers under the patronage of the court, temples, or local lords.[111]
The literary tradition ofJava and theKawi language is most well known forkakawin poetry. These were narrative poems based on the traditions ofSanskrit poetry, and they often incorporated religious elements. The oldest survivingkakawin isKakawin Ramayana from the 9th century, a Javanese localization of the SanskritBhaṭṭikāvya.[112]
Mesoamerican literature was typically recorded oncodices, though most surviving codices of pre-Columbian literature were written in the Latin alphabet to preserve oral tradition after colonization.Nahuatl literature was divided intocuícatl, which included song and poetry, andtlahtolli, which included prose works of history and discourses. Theteocuícatl were divine hymns that were sung to praise the gods, while other Nahuatl poetry was sung in celebration of life and friendship, to honor warriors, or to pose philosophical questions. KingNezahualcoyotl ofTetzcoco was a notable poet and songwriter.[113]
Literature in theMayan languages was closely related to oral tradition in which writing guided memorized passages that were often performed. It was highly symbolic and incorporated heavy use of wordplay. Metaphor and imagery involving the natural world was also common. Mayan literature was often religious in nature, including information on religious practices, divination, and the gods. Much of this literature was later condemned as heretical and destroyed by Christian priests. TheDresden Codex, theParis Codex, and theMadrid Codex are the only surviving pre-Columbian Mayan codices. Notable surviving Mayan texts include thePopol Vuh, theChilam Balam, and theAnnals of the Cakchiquels that describe the religious beliefs of Mesoamerican cultures.[113]
TheRenaissance encompassed much of European culture during the early modern period. This period saw a renewed interested in the classical works of Ancient Greece and Rome and a proliferation of artistic and scientific achievement. Literature, as with most forms of art in the early modern period, was financed throughpatronage by nobles. Fiction writing was not considered a profession in its own right and was typically undertaken by those who already possessed independent wealth.[114] The invention of theprinting press in the mid-15th century revolutionized European literature. The production of printed books allowed for more uniformity in literary works and the spread ofliteracy. Religious literature in particular was affected by the printing press, as churches funded and involved themselves in the printing process. Literary criticism also developed as literary works became more accessible.[115]
The form of writing now commonplace across the world—thenovel—originated from theearly modern period and grew in popularity in the next century. Before themodern novel became established as a form there first had to be a transitional stage when "novelty" began to appear in the style of the epic poem.Petrarch popularized thesonnet as a poetic form;Giovanni Boccaccio'sDecameron made romance acceptable in prose as well as poetry;François Rabelais rejuvenates satire withGargantua and Pantagruel;Michel de Montaigne single-handedly invented theessay and used it to catalog his life and ideas. Perhaps the most controversial and important work of the time period was a treatise printed inNuremberg, entitledDe Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium: in it, the astronomerNicolaus Copernicus removed the Earth from its privileged position in the universe, which had far-reaching effects, not only in science, but in literature and its approach to humanity, hierarchy, and truth.[citation needed]
Plays for entertainment (as opposed to religious enlightenment) returned to Europe's stages in the early modern period.William Shakespeare is the most notable of the early modern playwrights, but numerous others made important contributions, includingMolière,Pierre Corneille,Jean Racine,Pedro Calderón de la Barca,Lope de Vega,Christopher Marlowe, andBen Jonson. From the 16th to the 18th centuryCommedia dell'arte performers improvised in the streets of Italy and France. Some Commedia dell'arte plays were written down. Both the written plays and theimprovisation were influential upon literature of the time, particularly upon the work of Molière. Shakespeare drew upon the arts ofjesters and strolling players in creating new style comedies. All the parts, even the female ones, were played by men (en travesti) but that would change, first in France and then in England too, by the end of the 17th century.[citation needed]
As England grew to become aworld power, focus on England itself appeared in English literature. This tradition began withThe Faerie Queene byEdmund Spenser, written through the 1590s in honor of Queen Elizabeth I.[116]Metaphysical poetry developed in the 17th century, led byJohn Donne, most well known for his love poems.[117] TheAugustan literature movement developed in the 18th century, led bySamuel Johnson, seeking to imitate the classical tastes of Ancient Greece and Rome. Augustan critics condemned metaphysical poetry for its frivolity and subversion.[118]John Milton wrote the epic poemParadise Lost to create an English Christian epic that rivaled those of Homer and Virgil.[119] During the rule ofOliver Cromwell in the 1650s, the arts were restricted alongPuritan ideals. This censorship contributed to the fall of theCommonwealth of England and the restoration of the British monarchy. Under the restored monarchy, the arts were freer than they had been previously, and KingCharles II became a patron of the theater.[61]
William Shakespeare was a famed playwright in the late-16th and early-17th centuries, and he is generally recognized as the greatest author in the English language. He is known for his comedies, his dramas, and his histories, as well as his use ofblank verse,sonnet, andsoliloquy. Shakespeare's historical plays ignored historical accuracy and often contemplatedroyal succession, reflecting the concerns of his day regarding the succession ofElizabeth I.[120] Early English novels includeThe Pilgrim's Progress byJohn Bunyan andOroonoko byAphra Behn, both published in the 1680s. Bunyan introduced into English literature ideas ofindividualism and the quest ofpersonal fulfillment. Behn used her writing associal criticism to question theAtlantic slave trade.[61]Robinson Crusoe byDaniel Defoe is considered to be the first modern English novel, written as a celebration of thesocial mobility introduced bycapitalism. The book was written in arealistic style, and the original edition was marketed as a true autobiography without any mention of Defoe as an author.Jonathan Swift introduced thefantasy novel to English literature, most notably throughGulliver's Travels, which was similarly marketed as a true story.[121]
Gargantua and Pantagruel was written byFrançois Rabelais in five parts throughout the mid-16th century. It was an early influence of the novel, using an informal style and subversive humor.[61]
Printing became prominent in China during theMing dynasty in the beginning of the 16th century. By this time, urban areas were highly literate, assisted by the availability of paper in China. Written works were divided into four categories, including classics, histories, philosophy, andbelles-lettres.[122] Among the lower class,aria and folk songs were common, often performed by entertainers.[123] Literature was suppressed by the Ming dynasty's foundingHongwu Emperor, and writers that did not comply with his rule were executed, beginning a decline in Chinese literature in the 14th and 15th centuries.[124]Jiandeng Xinhua byQu You was a collection of supernatural andchuanqi stories, and it was one of the few works that maintained influence despite the suppression of literature.[125] Variety plays were the most common type of drama in the Early Ming period, and PrinceZhu Youdun was the most influential playwright of the time.[126] A literary revival took place in the Middle Ming period. The revival of poetry was led by literary groups such as theFour Talents of Suzhou and theEarlier Seven Masters and continued by groups such as theTang-Song School [zh] and theLatter Seven Masters.Xu Wei became an influential poet and prose writer after his death for his use of authenticity and his rejection of the preceding literary schools.[127]Early Chinese novels were developed in the Middle Ming period, including works such asWater Margin,Romance of the Three Kingdoms, andJourney to the West.[128]
In the Late Ming period, literature increasingly focused on the role of individuals within a society, beginning with the works ofLi Zhi.[129] Chinese philosophy developed humanist elements that challenged subservience to community and imperial hierarchy.[124] TheGong'an School [zh], led by theThree Yuan Brothers [zh], produced literature of "natural sensibility" that favored delight and simplicity over reason and ambition.[130] TheJingling School [zh], led byZhong Xing andTan Yuanchun, was a response to the Gong'an School that accepted the concept of "natural sensibility" but rejected the carefree style of Gong'an poetry.[131] Novels became more common in the Late Ming period as book publishers emerged.[132]Jin Ping Mei is recognized as a great novel of the Late Ming period and the first novel to follow day-to-day life of commoners.[133]Huaben stories were also common in this period, such as those collected byFeng Menglong in theThree Words and byLing Mengchu inSlapping the Table in Amazement.[134] Dramas became more common in the Late Ming period as it became fashionable for the aristocracy to entertain guests with private theater troupes.Tang Xianzu was an influential playwright of this period, and theWujiang School led byShen Jing was responsible for expanding upon drama as an artform with emphasis on its musical elements.[135]
Wood block printing became popular in the 17th century, and over a thousand books were sold annually by 1670. By the 17th century, increasing social divisions separated drama, withsamurai watchingnoh andchōnin watchingkabuki. Writers typically dedicated themselves to the government, to a specific clan, to the commons, or to a reclusive lifestyle.Ishikawa Jōzan was an influential 17th century poet.[136]
Korean literature diverged from Chinese literature in theJoseon dynasty. Theakjang, thesijo, and thegasa are forms of lyric composition that were popular in the Joseon dynasty.[137]Yongbieocheonga was a major collection of poems produced in the 1440s.[138] Korean vernacular fiction was developed byHŏ Kyun at the beginning of the 17th century withHong Gildong jeon.[139] The structure ofHong Gildong jeon was used to develop heroic fiction.The Cloud Dream of the Nine was written byKim Man-jung to reflect historical and philosophical changes of the time using dream structure.[140]Pansori fiction was developed in the early 18th century.[141]
In Germany, theSturm und Drang period of the late 18th century merges into aClassicist andRomantic period, epitomized by the long era ofGoethe's activity, covering the first third of the century. The conservativeBiedermeier style conflicts with the radicalVormärz in the turbulent period separating the end of the Napoleonic wars from theRevolutions of 1848.[citation needed]
Early Canadian novels adapted the literary trends of Europe.The History of Emily Montague was the first Canadian novel, published in 1769. The aftermath of theSeven Years' War was a significant influence on Canadian literature in the 18th and 19th centuries asFrench Canada was transferred to the British.[162] Popular novels, such as those ofJulia Catherine Beckwith, came about in the early-19th century with an emphasis on day-to-day experiences rather than grand narrative.[163] Nature featured prominently in Canadian literature by the mid-19th century.Edward Hartley Dewart was a prominent figure in early Canadian poetry, having published the first Canadian poetry anthology in 1864. He identified the formation of a Canadian literary body as a part of a conflict between colonial origins and a distinct Canadian identity.Octave Crémazie led the French Canadian literature movement in the 1860s. Notable Canadian poets of this period includedCharles Sangster,Alexander McLachlan,Charles Heavysege, and theConfederation Poets.[164] Victorian poetry remained prominent in Canada through the early-20th century, though international modernist movements such as Imagism gained influence afterWorld War I. Poets such asArthur Stringer andFrank Oliver Call lead afree verse movement in the 1910s and 1920s.[165]
Latin American literature diverged from European literature and began as its own literary tradition at the start of the 19th century. The primary change was in the subject matter and theme of the literature, while the form remained relatively European. It began with an individualist trend associated with theLatin American independence movements that were developing at the time. Within this movement developed the individual literature of each Latin American country as they formed their own national identities.Andrés Bello is recognized as a founder of modern literature inHispanic America, and he is credited for popularizing Romanticism in the region. The balance of national and continental literary identities was a major issue in early Latin American literature, particularly within the Spanish language.[166]
In the Middle Qing period,Shen Deqian,Weng Fanggang, andYuan Mei each formed new trends in poetry in opposition to the style of Wang Shizhen.[171]Pianwen became popular among prose writers in the Middle Qing period in opposition to theTongcheng school.[172]Six Records of a Floating Life was an autobiography byShen Fu that emphasized direct language and emotional appeal over style.[173] Performing arts of the Middle Qing period included the northernguci drum lyric and the southerntanci strummed lyric, the latter of which was often written by women poets.[174] Novels of the Middle Qing period includedThe Scholars andDream of the Red Chamber, both of which eschewed popular taste in favor of philosophy.[175] Drama went out of fashion among theQing literati, though theatrical performances remained common entertainment for the public.[176] In the Late Qing period, Western culture was a significant influence on Chinese society.[177] TheTongguang school was popular among adherents to typical Chinese poetry, styled after that of the Song dynasty.[178] Chivalrous novels telling the tales of folk heroes, political novels that were critical of the falling Qing government, and genre fiction all became popular in the final years of the Qing dynasty.[179]
Literature in theRepublic of China reflected the societal changes brought about by the1911 Revolution. Chinese literature broke away from classical tradition and literary restrictions with theNew Literature Movement in 1919, beginning with works such asExperiments byHu Shih,Diary of a Madman byLu Xun, andThe Goddess byGuo Moruo. TheMay Fourth Movement was a further cultural movement that promoted the use ofvernacular Chinese. Advocates ofliberal reform in China supported these shifts in literary tradition to challenge imperial institutions, and these works typically supported humanism and individualism. A refutation of individualism emerged in response at the onset of theChinese Civil War, and revolutionary literature was spread in support of theChinese Red Army.[180]
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^Schmandt-Besserat, Denise; Erard, Michael (2008). "Origins and Forms of Writing". In Bazerman, Charles (ed.).Handbook of research on writing : history, society, school, individual, text. L. Erlbaum Associates. pp. 7–26.ISBN9781410616470.OCLC418043692.
^Black, Jeremy; Cunningham, Graham; Robson, Eleanor; Zólyomi, Gábor (2004-11-25). "Introduction".The Literature of Ancient Sumer. OUP Oxford.ISBN978-0-19-155572-5.
^Lenzi, Alan (2020-01-10). "Introduction".An Introduction to Akkadian Literature: Contexts and Content. Penn State Press.ISBN978-1-64602-030-0.
^Moers, Gerald (2010). "New Kingdom Literature". In Lloyd, Alan B. (ed.).A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 685–708.ISBN978-1-405-15598-4.
^Wang, C. H. (2000). "The Book of Songs: The Earliest Anthology of Chinese Poetry". In Minford, John; Lau, Joseph S. M. (eds.).Classical Chinese Literature: An Anthology of Translations. Columbia University Press. p. 71.ISBN9789629960483.
^Mark Woolmer (ed.)."Phoenician: A Companion to Ancient Phoenicia".A Companion to Ancient Phoenicia, ed. Mark Woolmer: 4.Archived from the original on 2022-01-17. Retrieved2022-01-17.Altogether, the known Phoenician texts number nearly seven thousand. The majority of these were collected in three volumes constituting the first part of the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (CIS), begun in 1867 under the editorial direction of the famous French scholar Ernest Renan (1823–1892), continued by J.-B. Chabot and concluded in 1962 by James G. Février. The CIS corpus includes 176 "Phoenician" inscriptions and 5982 "Punic" inscriptions (see below on these labels).
^Parker, Heather Dana Davis; Rollston, Christopher A. (2019). "9". In Hamidović, D.; Clivaz, C.; Savant, S. (eds.).Teaching Epigraphy in the Digital Age. Vol. 3. Alessandra Marguerat. LEIDEN; BOSTON: Brill. pp. 189–216.ISBN9789004346734.JSTOR10.1163/j.ctvrxk44t.14.Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved2022-01-17.Of course, Donner and Röllig's three-volume handbook entitled KAI has been the gold standard for five decades now{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
^Riches, John (2000).The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37.ISBN978-0-19-285343-1.
^Philip R. Davies inThe Canon Debate, page 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of theHasmonean dynasty."
^Murray, Gilbert (1897).A History of Ancient Greek Literature. pp. 4–5.
^Rayor, Diane; Lardinois, André (2014).Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 7.ISBN978-1-107-02359-8.
^For example,Encyclopedia Americana, 2006, Vol. 30. p. 605: "the greatest single work of Italian literature;" John Julius Norwich,The Italians: History, Art, and the Genius of a People, Abrams, 1983, p. 27: "his tremendous poem, still after six and a half centuries the supreme work of Italian literature, remains – after the legacy of ancient Rome – the grandest single element in the Italian heritage;" and Robert Reinhold Ergang,The Renaissance, Van Nostrand, 1967, p. 103: "Many literary historians regard the Divine Comedy as the greatest work of Italian literature. In world literature it is ranked as an epic poem of the highest order."
^abKeenan, Siobhan (2008). "The Historical Context".Renaissance Literature. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–34.ISBN9780748631216.
^Dondi, Cristina (2013). "The European Printing Revolution". In Suarez, F. J. F.; Woudhuysen, H. R. (eds.).The Book: A Global History. OUP Oxford.ISBN978-0-19-166875-3.Archived from the original on 2023-04-04. Retrieved2022-08-26.
^Gonzalez Echevarria, Roberto (1996). "A brief history of the history of Spanish American Literature". In Gonzalez Echvarria, Roberto; Pupo-Walker, Enrique (eds.).The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature. Vol. 1: Discovery to Modernism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–32.ISBN9780521340694.
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Kato, Shuichi (1997).A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. Translated by Sanderson, Don (New Abridged ed.). Japan Library.ISBN1-873410-48-4.
Lane, Richard J. (2011).The Routledge Concise History of Canadian Literature. Routledge.
Lee, Peter H. (2003).A History of Korean Literature. Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781139440868.
Luo, Yuming (2011).A Concise History of Chinese Literature. Translated by Ye, Yang. Brill.ISBN9789004203662.
Sutherland, John (2013).A Little History of Literature. Yale University Press.ISBN9780300188363.
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