Thehistory of games dates to the ancient human past.[3]Games are an integral part of all cultures and are one of the oldest forms of human social interaction. Games are formalized expressions of play which allow people to go beyond immediateimagination and direct physical activity. Common features of games include uncertainty of outcome, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, elements of fiction, elements of chance, prescribed goals and personal enjoyment.
Games capture the ideas and worldviews of their cultures and pass them on to the future generation. Games were important as cultural and social bonding events, as teaching tools and as markers of social status. As pastimes of royalty and the elite, some games became common features ofcourt culture and were also given as gifts. Games such asSenet and theMesoamerican ball game were often imbued with mythic and ritual religious significance. Games likeGyan chauper andThe Mansion of Happiness were used to teach spiritual and ethical lessons whileShatranj andWéiqí (Go) were seen as a way to develop strategic thinking and mental skill by the political and military elite.
In his 1938 book,Homo Ludens, Dutch cultural historianJohan Huizinga argued that games were a primary condition of the generation of human cultures. Huizinga saw the playing of games as something that "is older than culture, for culture, however inadequately defined, always presupposes human society, and animals have not waited for man to teach them their playing".[4] Huizinga saw games as a starting point for complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art.
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Some of the most common pre-historic and ancient gaming tools were made of bone, especially from theTalus bone, these have been found worldwide and are the ancestors ofknucklebones as well asdice games.[5] Dice were invented at least 5,000 years ago and earlydice probably did not have six sides.[6] These bones were also sometimes used for oracular and divinatory functions. Other implements could have included shells, stones and sticks.
Board games likely originate from theancient Near East, based on archeological findings. A series of 49 small carved painted figures found at the 5,000-year-oldBaşur Höyük burial mound in southeastTurkey could represent the earliest gaming pieces ever found. Similar pieces have been found inTell Brak andJemdet Nasr, but they were isolated.[7] Researches have called the find Dogs and Pigs.[8] The earliest board games were a pastime for the elite and were sometimes given as diplomatic gifts according to a study published inAntiquity.[9] Another possibility is that boards were reserved for the elite, but lower classes played on boards scratched into stone or on the ground. Some archeologists think that stones carved with long rows, dated between 7000 BC and 9000 BC, were used for amancala-like game.[6]
The earliest known board games all used dice and were for two players.[6] Among the earliest examples of a board game issenet, a game found inPredynastic andFirst Dynasty burial sites inEgypt (circa 3500 BC and 3100 BC, respectively) and inhieroglyphs dating to around 3100 BC.[10] The game was played by moving draughtsmen on a board of 30 squares arranged into three parallel rows of ten squares each. The players strategically moved their pieces based on the throw of sticks or bones. The goal was to reach the edge of the board first. Senet slowly evolved to reflect the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. The pieces represented human souls and their movement was based on the journey of the soul in the afterlife. Each square had a distinct religious significance, with the final square being associated with the union of the soul with the sun godRe-Horakhty.[10] Senet may have also been used in a ritual religious context.
TheRoyal Game of Ur, orGame of Twenty Squares was played with a set of pawns on a richly decorated board and dates from 2600 to 2400 BC.[11] It was arace game which employed a set of knucklebone dice. This game was also known and played in Egypt. A Babylonian treatise on the game written on a clay tablet shows that the game had astronomical significance and that it could also be used to tell one's fortune.[12] The game of Ur was also popular with the lower classes, as attested by a 2,700-year-old graffiti version of the game, scratched onto a gateway to a palace inKhorsabad. Similar games have been found in Iran, Crete, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Syria.[12]
Another Game of Twenty was discovered in 1977 by the Italian Archaeological Mission in grave no. 731, a pseudo-catacomb grave atShahr-i Sokhta, aUNESCO World Heritage archaeological site in Iran. This board game set, comprising 27 pieces and four different dice, dates to 2600–2400 BCE. For the first time, the entire set has been scientifically analyzed and reconstructed by researchers ,[13] and it is considered the oldest complete and playable board game ever discovered.[14]Games such asNard and the Roman gameLudus Duodecim Scriptorum (game of 12 points, also known as simply "dice", lat. "alea") may have developed from this Iranian game. The Byzantine gameTabula is a descendant of the game of twelve points.
The other example of a board game in ancient Egypt is "Hounds and Jackals", also known as 58 holes. Hounds and Jackals appeared in Egypt, around 2000 BC and was mainly popular in theMiddle Kingdom.[15][16] The game was spread to Mesopotamia in the late 3rd millennium BC and was popular until the 1st millennium BC.[15] More than 68 gameboards of Hounds and Jackals have been discovered in the archaeological excavations in various territories, includingSyria (Tell Ajlun,Ras el-Ain,Khafaje), Palestine (Tel Beth Shean, Gezer),Iraq (Uruk,Nippur,Ur,Nineveh,Ashur,Babylon),Iran (Tappeh Sialk, Susa,Luristan),Turkey (Karalhuyuk, Kultepe,Acemhuyuk),Azerbaijan (Gobustan) andEgypt (Buhen,El-Lahun,Sedment).[17][15][18][19] It was a race game for two players. The gaming board consisted of two sets of 29 holes. Ten small pegs with either jackal or dog heads were used for playing.[20] It's believed that the aim of the game was to begin at one point on the board and to reach with all figures at the other point on the board.[21]
In Ancient Greece and in theRoman Empire, popular games included ball games (Episkyros,Harpastum, Expulsim Ludere – a kind ofhandball), dice games (Tesserae),knucklebones,Bear games,Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli),Nine men's morris (mola) and various types of board games similar tocheckers. Both Plato and Homer mention board games called 'petteia' (games played with 'pessoi', i.e. 'pieces' or 'men'). According to Plato, they are all Egyptian in origin. The name 'petteia' seems to be a generic term for board game and refers to various games. One such game was called 'poleis' (city states) and was a game of battle on a checkered board.[22]
The Romans played a derivation of 'petteia' called 'latrunculin' orLudus latrunculorum (the soldiers' game or the bandits' game). It is first mentioned byVarro (116–27 BC) and alluded to by Martial andOvid. This game was extremely popular and was spread throughout Europe by the Romans. Boards have been found as far asRoman Britain. It was a war game for two players and included moving around counters representing soldiers, with 'custodian' captures made by getting one of the adversary's pieces between two of one's own.[23]
After theMuslim conquest of Persia (638–651)Shatranj spread to the Arab world. While pre-Islamic chess sets represented Elephants, Horses, Kings and Soldiers; the Islamic prohibition against image worship led to increasing abstraction in chess set design. Islamic chess pieces were therefore simple cylindrical and rectangular shapes. The game became immensely popular duringAbbasid Caliphate of the 9th century. The Abbasid CaliphsHarun al-Rashid andAl-Ma'mun were avid Shatranj players.[24] During this period Muslim chess players published several treatises onchess problems (mansubat) andchess openings (ta'biyat). Elite players such as Al-Adli,al-Suli and Ar-Razi were calledaliyat or "grandees" and played at the courts of theCaliphs and wrote about the game. Al-Adli (800–870) is known for writing Kitab ash-shatranj (book of chess), a comprehensive work on the game, including history, openings, endgames and chess problems. Al-Adli also developed a system for ranking players. During the reign of theTurko-Mongol conquerorTimur (1336–1405), a variant of chess known asTamerlane chess was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game.
Various games in theTables family were also quite popular and are known asifranjiah in Arabic (meaning "Frankish") and asNard in Iran. Many of the early Arabic texts which refer to these games often debate the legality and morality of playing them. This debate was settled by the eighth century when all four Muslim schools of jurisprudence declared them to beHaraam (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games includedMancala andTâb.
Polo (Persian:chawgan, Arabic:sawlajan) was first played inSassanid Persia.[25] It passed from Sassanid Persia to the neighboringByzantine Empire at an early date, and aTzykanisterion (stadium for playing polo) was built by emperorTheodosius II (r. 408–450) inside theGreat Palace of Constantinople.[26] After theMuslim conquests, it passed to theAyyubid andMameluke dynasties, whose elites favored it above all other sports. Notablesultans such asSaladin andBaybars were known to play it and encourage it in their court.[27]
Playing cards were imported from Asia and India and were popular duringMamluk dynasty Egypt, featuring polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups as suits.
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India saw a number of games in ancient period ranging from the various dice games to other board games. The use of cubical and oblong dice was common in theIndus ValleyHarappan civilization (c. 2300 BC). Archaeological excavations have found gambling dice in monasteries and other Buddhist sites. The earliest textual mention of games in India is theRig-Veda's mention of the use of dice (c. 1000 BC). Texts such as the Mahabharata indicate that dice games were popular with Kings and royalty, and also had ceremonial purposes.[28]Cowry shells were also widely used.
Another early reference is thelist of Buddha games (circa 500 BC) which is a list from thePali Canon that Buddhist monks were forbidden to play. This list mentions games on boards with 8 or 10 rows (Ashtapada and Daśapada), games which use floor diagrams (one game called Parihâra-patham is similar tohop-scotch),dice games and ball games.Ashtapada and Daśapada wererace games.
Chaturanga (which means 'quadripartite' and also 'army'), the predecessor of chess, possibly developed in theIndian subcontinent orCentral Asia during theKushan (30–375 AD) orGupta (320–550 AD) periods from an amalgamation of other game features and was transmitted toSassanid Persia (where it was known asShatranj) and China through theSilk Road. It was divided into four parts called angas, which were symbolic of the four branches of an army. Just like the real ancient Indian army, it had pieces called elephants, chariots, horses and soldiers, and was played to devise war strategies.
The word 'checkmate' comes from the Persian term in the game, ‘shah mat’, meaning 'the king is dead'.[29] Another game namedchaturaji was similar but played with four sides of differing colors instead of two, however the earliest source for this four sided board game isAl-Biruni's 'India', circa 1030 AD. Historians of chess such asYuri Averbakh have surmised that the Greek board gamepetteia may have had an influence on the development of early chaturanga.Petteia games could have combined with other elements in theGreco-Bactrian andIndo-Greek Kingdoms.[30][31]
The game ofcarrom is said to have originated in the Indian subcontinent. Though there isn't any particular proof, it is said that Indian Maharajas invented the game centuries ago. There was a finding of an ancient glass carrom board in Patiala, Punjab. Carrom gained popularity after World War I, and is still a widely popular board game in India.[32]
Adding on, the game of 'Snakes and Ladders', previously known asvaikuntapaali, was originally a Hindu game. It has been speculated that this game was already being played in India as early as the 2nd century AD. Others have credited the invention of the game toDnyaneshwar (known also as Dnyandev), a Marathi saint who lived during the 13th century AD. This game is also known by names likegyan chaupar (meaning 'game of knowledge) ormokshapat andmoksha patamu (both meaning 'way to deliverance').
The game now known as 'ludo' – was originally calledpachisi (/pəˈtʃiːzi/). The board was made out of cloth or jute. A depiction of pachisi is found in the caves ofAjanta Caves in Maharashtra, showing that the game was quite popular in the Medieval Era.Cross and circle games such aschaupar and pachisi may be very old games, but so far their history has not been established prior to the 16th century. Chaupar was a popular gambling game at the court ofMughal emperorAkbar the Great (1556–1605). The emperor himself was a fan of the game and was known to play on a courtyard of his palace using slaves as playing pieces. Karuna Sharma of Georgia State University noted the political side of these board games played at the court.[33]
The game ofseven stones is mentioned in theBhāgvata Purāna, a text written in 1000 AD at the latest.[34] Several variations oftag, such askho kho,kabaddi,atya patya, andlangdi (sport),[35] are believed to be hundreds or thousands of years old (or even older as non-human animals are known to play tag[36]), with kho-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BC,[37] certain aspects of kabaddi possibly being mentioned in theMahabharata (in or before 300 AD),[38][39] and atya-patya being mentioned in theNaṟṟiṇai (in or before 300 AD).[40]
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The extinct Chinese board gameliubo was invented no later than the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, and was popular during theWarring States period (476 BC – 221 BC) and the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).[41][42] Although the game's rules have been lost, it was apparently arace game not unlikeSenet in that playing pieces were moved about a board using sticks thrown to determine movement.
Go, also known asWeiqi,Igo, orBaduk (in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, respectively), is first mentioned in the historical annalZuo Zhuan[43] (c. 4th century BC[44]). It is also mentioned in Book XVII of theAnalects of Confucius[44] and in two of the books ofMencius[45] (c. 3rd century BC[44]). In ancientChina, Go was one of thefour cultivated arts of theChinese scholar gentleman, along withcalligraphy,painting and playing the musical instrumentguqin, and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in thebureaucracy. Go was brought to Korea in the second century BC when the Han dynasty expanded into the Korean peninsula and it arrived in Japan in the 5th or 6th century AD and it quickly became a favorite aristocratic pastime.
Chinese Chess orXiangqi seems to have been played during theTang dynasty, any earlier attestation is problematic. Several Xiangqi pieces are known from the Northern Song dynasty (960–1126). It is unknown exactly howXiangqi developed. Other traditional East Asian Chess variants includeShogi (Japan) andJanggi (Korea).
Playing cards or tiles were invented in China[46] as early as the 9th centuryduring the Tang dynasty (618–907).[47][48][49] The earliest unambiguous attestation of paper playing cards date back to 1294.[50]
The modern game ofDominoes developed from early Chinesetile based games. What appears to have been the earliest references to gaming tiles are mentions ofkwat pai, or "bone tiles", used in gambling, in Chinese writings no later than 900 AD.[51] The earliest definite references toChinese dominoes are found in the literature of theSong dynasty (960–1279), whileWestern-styledominoes are a more recent variation, with the earliest examples being of early-18th century Italian design.[52] The modern tile gameMahjong is based on older Chinesecard games likeKhanhoo, peng hu, and shi hu.[53]
The pre-modern Chinese also playedball games such asCuju which was a ball and net game similar to football, andChuiwan, which is similar to moderngolf.
The most widespread of the native African games isMancala. Mancala is a family of board games played around the world, sometimes called "sowing" games, or "count-and-capture" games, which describes the gameplay. The wordmancala:منقلة comes from theArabic wordnaqala:نقلة meaning literally "to move". The earliest evidence ofMancala consists of fragments of pottery boards and several rock cuts found inAksumite in Ethiopia,Matara (now inEritrea), andYeha (also in Ethiopia), which have been dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century CE. More than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, and almost 200 invented games have been described. However, some names denote the same game, while some names are used for more than one game. Today, the game is played worldwide, withmany distinct variants representing different regions of the world. Some historians believe that mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found inJordan that dates around 6000 BC. The game might have been played by ancientNabataeans and could have been an ancient version of the modern mancala game.[54]
Archaeologist Barbara Voorhies has theorized that a series of holes on clay floors arranged in c shapes at the Tlacuachero archaeological site in Mexico's Chiapas state may be 5000-year-old dice-game scoreboards. If so this would be the oldest archaeological evidence for a game in the Americas.[55]
Dice games were popular throughout the Americas.Patolli was one of the most popular board games played byMesoamerican peoples such as theMayans,Toltecs andAztecs, it was arace game played with beans or dice on square and oval-shaped boards and gambling was a key aspect of it. The Andean peoples also played a dice game which is called by theQuechua wordpichca orpisca.
One of the oldest known ball games in history is theMesoamerican ballgame (Ōllamaliztli inNahuatl).Ōllamaliztli was played as far back as 1,400 BC and had important religious significance for themesoamerican peoples such as theMaya andAztec.[56] The game evolved over time, but the main goal was to keep a solid rubber ball in play by striking it with various parts of the body or with tools such as rackets. The game may have served as a proxy for warfare and also had a major religious function. Formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuringhuman sacrifice, though it was also played for leisure by children and even women.
Theindigenous North American peoples played various kinds ofstickball games, which are the ancestors of modernlacrosse. Traditional stickball games were sometimes major events that could last several days. As many as 100 to 1,000 men from opposing villages or tribes would participate. The games were played in open plains located between villages, and the goals could range from 500 yards (460 m) to 6 miles (9.7 km) apart.[57]
TheTafl games were a family of ancientGermanic andCeltic board games played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 CE until the 12th century.[58] Although the rules of the games were never explicitly recorded, it seems to have been a game with uneven forces (2:1 ratio) and the goal of one side was to escape to the side of the board with a King while the other side's goal was to capture him. Tafl was spread by theVikings throughout northern Europe, includingIceland,Britain,Ireland, andSápmi.[59]
Chess was introduced to the Iberianemirate of Cordoba in 822 during the reign ofAbd ar-Rahman II. By the middle of the 10th century, it was being played in Christian Spain, Italy and Southern Germany. By 1200, it had reached Britain and Scandinavia.[60] Initially there were many differing local Chess games with varying rules orassizes such asShort assize chess,Courier chess andDice Chess.
An important source of medieval games is theLibro de los juegos, ("Book of games"), orLibro de acedrex, dados e tablas, ("Book of chess, dice and tables", in Old Spanish) which was commissioned byAlfonso X of Castile, Galicia and León in 1283.[61] The manuscript contains descriptions and color illustrations ofdice games,chess andtabula, a predecessor ofbackgammon. The book portrays these games within an astrological context, and some game variants are astronomically designed, such as a game titled "astronomical chess", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of theZodiac. The symbolism of the text indicates that some of these games were given metaphysical significance. Chess was also used to teach social and moral lessons by the Dominican friarJacobus de Cessolis in hisLiber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'). Published circa 1300, the book was immensely popular.
Other pre-modern European board games includeRithmomachy or "the philosophers game",alquerque,fox & geese,nine men's morris,draughts,nim,catch the hare and thegame of the goose.Dice games were widely played throughout Europe and includedhazard,chuck-a-luck,Glückshaus,shut the box andknucklebones.
Card games first arrived in Italy fromMamluk Egypt in the 14th century, with suits very similar to the Swords, Clubs, Cups and Coins and those still used in traditionalItalian andSpanish decks.[62] The foursuits most commonly encountered today (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) appear to have originated in France circa 1480.[63] 1440s Italy saw the rise oftarot cards and this led to the development oftarot card games such astarocchini,Königrufen andFrench tarot.
Outdoor games were very popular during holidays and fairs and were played by all classes. Many of these games are the predecessors of modern sports andlawn games.Boules,lawn billiards (later brought indoors asbilliards),skittles (an ancestor of modern ten pinbowling),medieval football,kolven,stoolball (an ancestor ofcricket),jeu de paume (early racket-lesstennis),horseshoes andquoits all predate theearly modern era.
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Modern chess rules began taking shape in Spain and Italy during the 15th century with the adoption of the standard Queen and Bishop movements (initially called "Mad Queen chess"). Writings onchess theory also began to appear in the 15th century with the first text being theRepetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess, 1497) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena. Chess books by authors such asRuy López de Segura andGioachino Greco became widely studied. Chess was the favored game ofVoltaire,Rousseau,Benjamin Franklin andNapoleon.[64]
In 1851, thefirst international chess tournament was held in London and won byAdolf Anderssen. Soon after moderntime control rules were adopted for competitive play. The firstOfficial World Chess Championship was held in 1886 in the United States and won byWilhelm Steinitz. By the 20th century, the game ofChess had developed into aprofessional sport with chess clubs, publications,player ratings andchess tournaments. TheWorld Chess Federation (FIDE) was founded in 1924 inParis.
A large number ofChess variants were also developed, with varyingpieces, rules, boards and scoring. Among them areKriegspiel,Capablanca Chess,Alice Chess,Circular chess,Three-dimensional chess,Hexagonal Chess,Chess with different armies, andBobby Fischer'sChess960.
InJapan,Go andShogi became the major board games played at a professional level. Both games were promoted inJapan by theTokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, and top players (Meijin) received government endowments. During the 20th century the Japan Shogi Association and theJapan Go Association were founded and began organizing professional tournaments. During theQing dynasty, manyXiangqi clubs were formed and books published. TheChinese Xiangqi Association was formed in 1962, and Xiangqi tournaments are held worldwide by national Xiangqi associations.
In 1997 the firstMind Sports Olympiad was held in London and included traditional as well as modern board games. Other board games such asBackgammon,Scrabble andRisk are also played professionally with dedicated world championships.
The Ancient Indian game ofPachisi was brought to the west by the British in the 1863 and an adaptation of the oldest game namedParcheesi was first copyrighted in the United States by EG Selchow & Co in 1869.[65] A version of the game calledLudo was patented in 1896. A similar German race game,Mensch ärgere dich nicht ("Man, don't get annoyed"), became immensely popular with German troops duringWorld War I. Another Indian game which was adopted by the West wasGyan chauper (a.k.a. Moksha Patam), popularly known assnakes and ladders. This was a game which was intended to teach lessons aboutkarma and good and bad actions, the ladders represented virtues and the snakes vices. The moral lesson of the game was that spiritual liberation, orMoksha could only be achieved through virtuous action, while vice led to endless reincarnation. The game dates to medieval India where it was played by Jains and Hindus. A Buddhist version, known as "ascending the [spiritual] levels" (Tibetan:sa gnon rnam bzhags) is played in Nepal and Tibet[66] while a Muslim version of the game played during theMughal period from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States asChutes and Ladders (an "improved new version of England's famous indoor sport") by game pioneerMilton Bradley in 1943.
The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map-based game published in 1759 byJohn Jefferys, aGeography and writing teacher.[67] Designed in England by George Fox in 1800,The Mansion of Happiness became the prototype for commercial board games for at least two centuries to follow. The first board game published in the United States wasTraveller's Tour Through the United States, published by New York City bookseller F. Lockwood in 1822. The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality and includedThe Mansion of Happiness (1843) andThe Game of Pope or Pagan, or The Siege of the Stronghold of Satan by the Christian Army (1844). While demonstrating the commercial viability of the ancient race game format, its moralistic overtones were countered byMilton Bradley in 1860 with the introduction of a radically different concept of success inThe Checkered Game of Life, in which material successes came as a result of accomplishments such as attending college, marrying, and getting rich. Likewise theGame of the District Messenger Boy (1886) also focused on secular capitalist virtues rather than the religious.
First patented in 1904,The Landlord's Game, designed byElizabeth Magie,[68] was originally intended to illustrate the economic consequences ofRicardo's Law ofEconomic rent and theGeorgist concept of asingle tax on land value.[69] A series ofboard games were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of modernMonopoly by theParker Brothers.
Though the first commercial version of thegame ofBattleship wasSalvo, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company, the game itself dates to beforeWorld War I when it was played on paper by Russian officers.[70] The French board gameL'Attaque was first commercially released in 1910, having been designed two years prior as a military-themed imperfect knowledge game based upon the earlier Chinese children's board gamedou shou qi.L'Attaque was subsequently adapted by the Chinese intoLuzhanqi (orLu Zhan Jun Qi), and byMilton Bradley intoStratego, the latter having been trademarked in 1960 while the former remains in the public domain.Jury Box, published in 1935, was the firstmurder mystery game which served as the basis for games likeCluedo.
Initially designed in 1938,Scrabble received its first mass-market exposure in 1952, two years prior to the release ofDiplomacy, in 1954.Diplomacy was a game favored byJohn F. Kennedy, andHenry Kissinger. Originally released in 1957 asLa Conquête du Monde ("The Conquest of the World") in France,Risk was first published under its English title in 1959.
Starting withGettysburg in 1958, the companyAvalon Hill developed particular board wargames covering specific historical themes such asMidway,D-Day andPanzerBlitz.Board wargames such asSquad Leader,Tactics andEuropa developed extremely complex and realistic rules. Avalon Hill'sCivilization introduced the use of the technology tree (or "tech tree"), variants of which have been implemented in numerous later board andvideo games such asSid Meier's Civilization. Recentwargames such as 'A distant plain', 'Labyrinth' and the satiricalWar on Terror have focused on counterinsurgency and contemporaryterrorism.
A concentrated design movement towards theGerman-style board game, orEurogame, began in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Germany,[71] and led to the development of board games such asCarcassonne,The Settlers of Catan,Agricola,Ticket to ride andPuerto Rico.
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During the 15th centurycard suits began to approach the contemporary regional styles and the court cards evolved to represent European royalty. Early European card games includednoddy,triomphe,all fours,piquet,basset,Hofamterspiel,Karnöffel, andprimero. In 1674Charles Cotton published hisCompleat Gamester, one of the first books which set out to outline rules for many card and dice games. During the mid-16th century, Portuguese traders introduced playing cards toJapan. The first reference totwenty-one, the precursor ofblackjack is found in a book by the Spanish authorMiguel de Cervantes. Cervantes was agambler, and the main characters of his taleRinconete y Cortadillo are cheats proficient at playingventiuna (twenty-one).
The game ofcribbage appears to have developed in the early 17th century, as an adaptation of the earlier card gamenoddy.Pinochle was likely derived from the earlierbezique, a game popular in France during the 17th century. 1742 saw the publication ofEdmund Hoyle'sShort Treatise on the Game of Whist which became one of the bestselling publications of the 18th century.[72]Whist was widely played during the 18th and 19th centuries,[73] having evolved from the 16th century game oftrump (orruff) by way ofRuff and Honours.[74][75]
Baccarat first came to the attention of the public at large and grew to be widely played as a direct result of theRoyal Baccarat Scandal of 1891,[76][77] and bears resemblances to the card gamesFaro andBasset, both of which were very popular during the 19th century. The rules ofContract bridge were originally published in 1925, the game having been derived from Bridge games with rules published as early as 1886, Bridge games, in turn, having evolved from the earlier game of Whist.
The first documented game ofpoker dates from an 1833 Mississippi river steamer.[78] During theAmerican Civil War the game was popular with soldiers and additions were made includingstud poker, and thestraight. Moderntournament play became popular inAmerican casinos after theWorld Series of Poker (WSOP) began, in 1970.[79] Poker's popularity experiencedan unprecedented spike at the beginning of the 21st century, largely because of the introduction ofonline poker andhole-card cameras, which turned the game into aspectator sport. In 2009 theInternational Federation of Poker was founded inLausanne, Switzerland, becoming the official governing body for poker.
Collectible card games or trading card games while bearing similarities to earlier games in concept, first achieved wide popularity in the 1990s. The first trading card game wasThe Base Ball Card Game produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on 4 April 1904. It featured 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person.[80] The 1990s saw the rise of games such asMagic: The Gathering and thePokémon Trading Card Game.
Miniature figure games have their origin in a German chess variant called 'The King's Game', created in 1780 by Helwig, Master of Pages to the Duke of Brunswick. It had a board with 1,666 squares of varying types of terrain, with pieces representing modern military units.[81] In the early 19th century, thePrussian army developed war games or 'kriegspieler', with staff officers moving pieces around on a game table, using dice rolls to indicate chance or "friction" and with an umpire scoring the results. After the stunning Prussianvictories against Austriaand France in the 19th century, theAustrians,French,British,Italians,Japanese andRussians all began to make use of wargaming as a training tool. By 1889 wargaming was firmly embedded in the culture of the U.S. Navy.[82]
The first non-military wargame rules were developed by Naval enthusiast and analystFred T. Jane in 1898.H. G. Wells published rules in hisFloor Games (1911) andLittle Wars (1913) designed for wargaming with toy soldiers. In 1956,Jack Scruby, known as the "Father of Modern Miniature Wargaming" organized the first miniatures convention and he was also a manufacturer of military miniatures and editor of a wargaming newsletter. Miniature war games became affordable and mainstream in the late 1950s with the rise of cheaper miniature production methods by miniature figure manufacturers such as Scruby Miniatures, Miniature Figurines and Hinchliffe. During the 1980s there was a boom in miniature wargaming with the development of games such asWarhammer Fantasy Battle andWarhammer 40,000. Today miniature wargaming includes most historical eras, fantasy and science fiction settings as well asNaval wargaming (Don't Give Up the Ship!,General Quarters),Air wargaming andSpace combat wargames (Full Thrust,Attack Vector: Tactical).
Early role-playing games such as those made byM. A. R. Barker andGreg Stafford developed from miniature figure wargames.Gary Gygax of theUniversity of Minnesota's wargaming society developed a set of rules for a latemedieval milieu. This game was calledChainmail and was a historical game, but later editions included an appendix for adding fantasy elements such as spells, wizards and dragons. By 1971,Dave Arneson had developed a miniatures game calledBlackmoor which contained elements that would become widespread in fantasy gaming:hit points,experience points, character levels,armor class, anddungeon crawls. Arneson and Gygax then met and collaborated on the firstDungeons & Dragons game which was released in 1974 by Gygax'sTSR. The game was very successful and several other games such as the Science fiction RPGTraveller and the genericGURPS system followed in imitation. In the late 1970s TSR launchedAdvanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) which saw an expansion of rulebooks and additions. The 1980s saw severalDungeons & Dragons controversies such as the claims that the game promotedSatanism andwitchcraft. Traditional Roleplaying games were the basis for the modernRole-playing video game.
Incolonial America, the game ofhazard was calledcrapaud by the French inNew Orleans (a French word meaning "toad" in reference to the original style of play by people crouched over a floor or sidewalk). This was later shortened tocraps and after several adaptations became the most popular gambling dice game in the United States.[83]Sic bo was introduced into the United States by Chinese immigrants in the 20th century and is now a popularcasino game. Another casino game,roulette, has been played since the late 18th century, and was probably adapted from English wheel games such as Roly-Poly and E.O.
With the possible exception ofcarrom (a game whose origins are uncertain), the earliesttable games appear to have been thecue sports, which includecarom billiards,pool, orpocket billiards, andsnooker. The cue sports are generally regarded as having developed into indoor games from outdoor stick-and-balllawn games (retroactively termedground billiards),[84] and as such to be related totrucco,croquet and golf, and more distantly to the sticklessbocce andbowls.
Dominoes, which originate in China and date as far back as theSong dynasty (A.D. 1120), first appeared in Europe during the 18th century. The Chinesetile gamemahjong developed from a Chinese card game known asmǎdiào sometime during the 17th century and was imported into the United States in the 1920s.
Modernsports developed from different European games, many of them played by European royalty.Tennis developed in France, French kings likeFrancis I of France (1515–1547) andHenry II (1547–1559) were well known players.Golf originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II's banning of the game in 1457. The ban was lifted by James IV in 1502 who also played golf.Cricket can be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England and the modern rules ofassociation football andrugby football are based on mid-19th century rules made to standardise the football games played byEnglish public schools. These team sports were spread worldwide by the influence of theBritish Empire.
The earliest reference to a purely electronic game appears to be a United States patent registration in 1947 for what was described by its inventors as a "cathode-ray tube amusement device".[85] Through the 1950s and 1960s the majority of early computer games ran on universitymainframe computers in theUnited States. Beginning in 1971, videoarcade games began to be offered to the public for play. The firsthome video game console, theMagnavox Odyssey, was released in 1972.[86][87]
Thegolden age of arcade video games began in 1978 and continued through to the mid-1980s. Asecond generation of video game consoles, released between 1977 and 1983, saw increased popularity as a result of this, though this eventually came to an abrupt end with thevideo game crash of 1983. The homevideo game industry was eventually revitalized with thethird generation of game consoles over the next few years, which saw a shift in the dominance of the video game industry from the United States toJapan. This same time period saw the advent of thepersonal computer game, specialized gaminghome computers, earlyonline gaming, and the introduction ofLEDhandheld electronic games and eventuallyhandheld video games.
簙：局戲也。六箸十二棊也。从竹博聲。古者烏胄作簙。
臨菑甚富而實，其民無不吹竽鼓瑟，彈琴擊築，鬥雞走狗，六博蹋鞠者。
In 1966, Ralph H. Baer .. pitched an idea .. to create interactive games to be played on the television. Over the next two years, his team developed the first video game system—and in 1968, they demonstrated the "Brown Box," a device on which several games could be played and that used a light gun to shoot targets on the screen. After several more years of development, the system was licensed by Magnavox in 1970 and the first game console system, the Odyssey, was released in 1972 at the then high price of $100.