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Thehistory of chess can be traced back nearly 1,500 years to its earliest known predecessor, calledchaturanga, inIndia; its prehistory is the subject of speculation. From India it spread toPersia, where it was modified in terms of shapes and rules and developed intoshatranj. Following theArab invasion and conquest of Persia,chess was taken up by theMuslim world and subsequently spread to Europe via Spain (Al Andalus) and Italy (Emirate of Sicily). The game evolved roughly into its current form by about 1500 CE.
"Romantic chess" was the predominant playing style from the late 18th century to the 1880s.[1]Chess games of this period emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers rather than long-term strategic planning.[1] The Romantic era of play was followed by the Scientific,Hypermodern, and New Dynamism eras.[1] In the second half of the 19th century, modernchess tournament play began, and the first officialWorld Chess Championship was held in 1886. The 20th century saw great leaps forward inchess theory and the establishment of theWorld Chess Federation. In 1997, anIBM supercomputer beatGarry Kasparov, the then world chess champion, in the famousDeep Blue versus Garry Kasparov match, ushering the game into anera of computer domination. Since then, computer analysis – which originated in the 1970s with the firstprogrammed chess games on the market – has contributed to much of the development in chess theory and has become an important part of preparation in professional human chess. Later developments in the 21st century made the use of computer analysis far surpassing the ability of any human player accessible to the public.Online chess, which first appeared in the mid-1990s, also became popular in the 21st century.
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Precursors tochess originated inIndia.[3] There, its early form in the 7th century CE was known aschaturaṅga (Sanskrit:चतुरङ्ग), which translates to "four divisions (of the military)":infantry,cavalry,elephantry, andchariotry. These forms are represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modernpawn,knight,bishop, androok, respectively.[a]
Chess was introduced toPersia from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.[4] Around 600 CE inSassanid Persia, the name for the game becamechatrang (Persian:چترنگ), which subsequently evolved toshatranj (Arabic:شطرنج;Persian:شترنج) after theconquest of Persia by theRashidun Caliphate, due to the lack of native "ch" and "ng" sounds in the Arabic language.[5] The rules were developed further during this time; players started calling "Shāh!" (Persian for "King!") when attacking the opponent's king, and "Shāh Māt!" (Persian for "the king is helpless" – seecheckmate) when the king was attacked and could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands.
The game was taken up by theMuslim world after the earlyArab Muslims conquered the Sassanid Empire, with the pieces largely keeping their Persian names. TheMoors ofNorth Africa rendered the Persian term "shatranj" asshaṭerej, which gave rise to the Spanishacedrex,axedrez andajedrez; in Portuguese it becamexadrez, and in Greekzatrikion (ζατρίκιον), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persianshāh ("king"). Thus, the game came to be calledlūdus scacc(h)ōrum orscacc(h)ī inLatin,scacchi in Italian,escacs inCatalan,échecs in French (Old Frencheschecs),schaken in Dutch,Schach in German,szachy in Polish,šahs inLatvian,skak in Danish,sjakk in Norwegian,schack in Swedish,šakki in Finnish,šah inSouth Slavic languages,sakk in Hungarian andşah in Romanian; there are two theories about why this change happened:
TheMongols call the gameshatar, and in Ethiopia it is called senterej, both evidently derived from shatranj.
Chess spread directly from theMiddle East to Russia, where chess became known asшахматы (shakhmaty, literally "checkmates", aplurale tantum).
The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe.[6] Introduced into theIberian Peninsula by theMoors in the 10th century, it was described in a famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering shatranj,backgammon anddice named theLibro de los juegos, which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on Europeantables games.
Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.[7]Buddhist pilgrims,Silk Road traders and others carried it to theFar East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.[8][9] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, theByzantine Empire and the expandingArabian Empire.[10]Muslims carried chess toNorth Africa,Sicily, andIberia by the 10th century.[11]
The game was developed extensively in Europe. By the late 15th century, it had survived a series of prohibitions andChristian Church sanctions to almost take the shape of the modern game.[12]Modern history saw reliable reference works,[13] competitive chess tournaments,[14] and many newvariants. These factors added to the game's popularity,[14] further bolstered by reliable timing mechanisms (first introduced in 1861), effective rules,[14] and charismatic players.[15]
The earliest precursor of modern chess is a game calledchaturanga, which flourished in India by the 6th century, and is the earliest known game to have two essential features found in all later chess variations—different pieces having different powers (which was not the case withcheckers andGo), and victory depending on the fate of one piece, the king of modern chess.[16] A common theory is that India's development of the board, and chess, was likely due to India's mathematical enlightenment involving the creation of thenumber zero.[5] Other game pieces (speculatively called "chess pieces") uncovered inarchaeological findings are considered as coming from other, distantly related board games, which may have had boards of 100 squares or more.[17][non-tertiary source needed]
Chess was designed for anashtāpada (Sanskrit for "having eight feet", i.e. an 8×8 squared board), which may have been used earlier for abackgammon-type race game (perhaps related to a dice-driven race game still played in south India where the track starts at the middle of a side and spirals into the center).[18] Ashtāpada, the uncheckered 8×8 board served as the main board for playingchaturanga.[19] Other Indian boards included the 10×10Dasapada and the 9×9Saturankam.[19] Traditional Indian chessboards often have X markings on some or all of squares a1 a4 a5 a8 d1 d4 d5 d8 e1 e4 e5 e8 h1 h4 h5 h8: these may have been "safe squares" where capturing was not allowed in a dice-driven backgammon-type race game played on theashtāpada before chess was invented.[20]
TheCox–Forbes theory, proposed in the late 18th century byHiram Cox, and later developed byDuncan Forbes, asserted that the four-handed gamechaturaji was the original form of chaturanga.[21] The theory is no longer considered tenable.[22]
InSanskrit, the wordchaturaṅga literally means "having four limbs (or parts)" and inepic poetry often means "army" (the four parts are elephants, chariots, horsemen, foot soldiers).[4] The name came from a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epicMahabharata.[20] The game chaturanga was a battle-simulation game[4] that rendered Indian military strategy of the time.[23]
Some people formerly played chess using adie to decide which piece to move. There was an unproven theory that chess started as this dice-chess and that the gambling and dice aspects of the game were removed because ofHindu religious objections.[24]
Scholars in areas to which the game subsequently spread, for example the ArabAbu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī, detailed the Indian use of chess as a tool formilitary strategy,mathematics,gambling and even its vague association withastronomy.[25] Mas'ūdī notes thativory in India was chiefly used for the production of chess andbackgammon pieces, and asserts that the game was introduced to Persia from India, along with the bookKelileh va Demneh, during the reign of emperorNushirwan.[25]
In some variants, a win was by checkmate, or bystalemate, or by "bare king" (taking all of an opponent's pieces except the king).
In some parts of India the pieces in the places of the rook, knight and bishop were renamed by words meaning (in this order) Boat, Horse, and Elephant, or Elephant, Horse, and Camel, but keeping the same moves.[26]In early chess the moves of the pieces were:
| Original name | Modern name | Version | Original move |
|---|---|---|---|
| king | king | all | as now |
| adviser | queen | all | one square diagonally, only |
| elephant | bishop | Persia and west | two squares diagonally (no more or less), but could jump over a piece between |
| an old Indian version | two squares sideways or front-and-back (no more or less), but could jump over a piece between | ||
| southeast and east Asia | one square diagonally, or one square forwards, like four legs and trunk of elephant | ||
| horse | knight | all | as now |
| chariot | rook | all | as now |
| foot-soldier | pawn | all | one square forwards (not two squares from initial position), capturing one square diagonally forward; promoted to queen only |
Two Arab travelers each recorded a severe Indian chess rule againststalemate:[27]
![These seven ivory chess pieces are the oldest known, dating to about 700 CE. The ivory came from India.[28] They were excavated in 1977 by archaeologist Yuriy Buryakov, at Afrasiyab in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.[29] They are housed today at the Samarkand State Museum. Photographed during a loan of the pieces to the Silk Roads Exhibition at the British Museum.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChessmen_from_Samarkhand.jpg)
![Iranian shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art[30]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg)
TheKarnamak-i Ardeshir-i Papakan, aPahlavi epical treatise about the founder of theSassanidPersian Empire, mentions the game ofchatrang as one of the accomplishments of the legendary hero,Ardashir I, founder of the Empire.[31] The oldest recorded game in chess history is a 10th-century game played between a historian fromBaghdad and a pupil.[10][non-tertiary source needed]
A manuscript explaining the rules of the game, called "Matikan-i-chatrang" (the book of chess) inMiddle Persian or Pahlavi, still exists.[32]In the 11th-centuryShahnameh,Ferdowsi describes aRaja visiting from India who re-enacts the past battles on the chessboard.[25] A translation in English, based on the manuscripts in theBritish Museum, is given below:[31]
One day an ambassador from the king ofHind arrived at the Persian court ofChosroes, and after an oriental exchange of courtesies, the ambassador produced rich presents from his sovereign and amongst them was an elaborate board with curiously carved pieces of ebony and ivory. He then issued a challenge:
"Oh great king, fetch your wise men and let them solve the mysteries of this game. If they succeed my master the king of Hind will pay tribute as an overlord, but if they fail it will be proof that the Persians are of lower intellect and we shall demand tribute from Iran."
The courtiers were shown the board, and after a day and a night in deep thought one of them,Bozorgmehr, solved the mystery and was richly rewarded by his delighted sovereign.[b]
TheShahnameh goes on to offer an apocryphal account of the origins of the game of chess in the story of Talhand and Gav, two half-brothers who vie for the throne of Hind (India). They meet in battle and Talhand dies on his elephant without a wound. Believing that Gav had killed Talhand, their mother is distraught. Gav tells his mother that Talhand did not die by the hands of him or his men, but she does not understand how this could be. So the sages of the court invent the game of chess, detailing the pieces and how they move, to show the mother of the princes how the battle unfolded and how Talhand died of fatigue when surrounded by his enemies.[33] The poem uses the Persian term "Shāh māt" (check mate) to describe the fate of Talhand.[34]
The philosopher and theologianAl-Ghazali mentions chess inThe Alchemy of Happiness (c. 1100). He uses it as a specific example of a habit that may cloud a person'sgood disposition:[35]
Indeed, a person who has become habituated to gaming with pigeons, playing chess, or gambling, so that it becomes second-nature to him, will give all the comforts of the world and all that he has for those (pursuits) and cannot keep away from them.
The appearance of thechess pieces had altered greatly since the times of chaturanga, with ornate pieces and chess pieces depicting animals giving way to abstract shapes. This is because of a Muslim ban on the game's lifelike pieces, as they were said to have been too like idols.[5] TheIslamic sets of later centuries followed a pattern which assigned names and abstract shapes to the chess pieces, asIslam forbids depiction of animals and human beings in art.[36] These pieces were usually made of simple clay and carved stone.
As a strategy board game played in China, chess is believed to have been derived from the Indian chaturanga.[37] Chaturanga was transformed into the gamexiangqi where the pieces are placed on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.[38] The object of the Chinese variation is similar to chaturanga, i.e. to render helpless the opponent's king, known as "general" on one side and "governor" on the other.[39] Chinese chess also borrows elements from the game ofGo, which was played in China since at least the 6th century BC. Owing to the influence of Go, Chinese chess is played on the intersections of the lines on the board, rather than in the squares. The game of Xiangqi is also unique in that the middle rank represents a river, and is not divided into squares.[40] Chinese chess pieces are usually flat and resemble those used incheckers, with pieces differentiated by writing their names on the flat surface.[38]
An alternative origin theory contends that chess arose fromxiangqi or a predecessor thereof, existing in China since the 3rd century BC.[41]David H. Li, a translator of ancient Chinese texts, hypothesizes that generalHan Xin drew on the earlier game ofliubo to develop an early form of Chinese chess in the winter of 204–203 BC.[41] The German chess historian Peter Banaschak, however, points out that Li's main hypothesis "is based on virtually nothing." He notes that the "Xuanguai lu", authored by theTang dynasty ministerNiu Sengru (779–847), remains the first real source on the Chinese chess variant xiangqi.[42]
A prominent variant of chess in East Asia is the game ofshogi, transmitted from India to China and Korea before finally reaching Japan.[43] The three distinguishing features of shogi are:
Drops were not originally part of shogi. In the 13th century, shogi underwent an expansion, creating the game ofdai shogi, played on a 15×15 board with many new pieces, including the independently invented rook, bishop and queen of modern Western chess, the drunk elephant that promotes to a second king, and also the even more powerful lion, which among other idiosyncrasies has the power to move or capture twice per turn. Around the 14th or 15th centuries, the popularity of dai shogi then waned in favour of the smallerchu shogi, played on a smaller 12×12 board which removed the weakest pieces from dai shogi, similarly to the development ofCourier chess in the West. In the meantime, the original 9×9 shogi, now termedsho shogi, continued to be played, but was regarded as less prestigious than chu shogi and dai shogi. Chu shogi was very popular in Japan, and the rook, bishop, and drunk elephant from it were added to sho shogi, where the first two remain today.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, yet moreshogi variants were described, on large boards and with many more pieces. The 1694 bookShōgi Zushiki detailstenjiku shogi (16×16),dai dai shogi (17×17),maka dai dai shogi (19×19), andtai shogi (25×25); it also mentionswa shogi (11×11),ko shogi (19×19), andtaikyoku shogi (36×36). It is not thought that these games were played very much.
Chu shogi declined in popularity after the addition of drops to sho shogi and the removal of the drunk elephant in the 16th century, becoming moribund around the late 20th century. These changes to sho shogi created what is essentially the modern game of shogi.
The Thai variant of chess,makruk is a close living relative to chaturanga, retaining the vizier, non-checkered board, limited promotion, offset kings, and elephant-like bishop move.[45]
Chess is recorded fromMongolian-inhabited areas, where the pieces are now called:
Names recorded from the 1880s by Russian sources, quoted in Murray,[46][47] among theSoyot people (who at the time spoke theSoyotTurkic language) include:merzé (dog),täbä (camel),ot (horse),ōl (child) and Mongolian names for the other pieces. This game is calledshatar; a large 10×10 variant calledhiashatar was also played.
The change with the queen is likely due to the Arabic wordfirzān or Persian wordfarzīn (= "vizier") being confused with Turkic or Mongolian native words (merzé = "mastiff",bar orbars = "tiger",arslan = "lion").[46][47]
Western chess is now the prevalent form of the game in Mongolia.
Chess was also recorded from theYakuts,Tunguses, andYukaghirs; but only as a children's game among theChukchi. Chessmen have been collected from theYakutat people inAlaska, having no resemblance to European chessmen, and thus likely part of a chess tradition coming fromSiberia.[48]
Chess passed from Persia to the Arab world, where its name changed to Arabicshatranj. From there it passed to Western Europe, probably via Spain.
Over the centuries, features of European chess (e.g. the modern moves of queen and bishop, and castling) found their way via trade into Islamic areas. Murray's sources found the old moves of queen and bishop still current in Ethiopia.[49] The game became so popular it was used in writing at that time, played by nobility and regular people. The poet al-Katib once said, "The skilled player places his pieces in such a way as to discover consequences that the ignorant man never sees... thus, he serves the Sultan's interests, by showing how to foresee disaster."[5]
Chess has 1000 years of history in Russia. Chess was probably brought toOld Russia in the 9th century via theVolga-Caspian trade route. From the 10th century cultural connections with theByzantine Empire and theVikings also influenced the history of chess in Russia. The vocabulary in Russian chess has various foreign-language elements and testifies to different influences in the evolution of chess in Russia. Chess is mentioned in folk poems as a popular game and is documented in the Old Russianbyliny. Numerous archeological finds of the chess game have already been found in the regions of Old Russia. From 1262 on chess was called in Russiashakhmaty. Various foreign travellers commented that in the 16th century, chess was popular among all classes in Russia.Ivan IV the Terrible, who ruled Russia from 1530 to 1584, is said to have died while playing chess.[50] In 1791 the popular chess bookMorals of Chess byBenjamin Franklin was translated into Russian and published in the country. Chess enjoys a very high status in Russia and was gradually introduced as a school subject in all primary schools since 2017.[51][52][53]
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Shatranj made its way via the expandingIslamicArabian empire to Europe.[10] It also spread to theByzantine empire, where it was calledzatrikion. Chess appeared inSouthern Europe during the end of the first millennium, often introduced to new lands by conquering armies, such as theNorman Conquest of England.[12] Previously little known, chess became popular in Northern Europe when figure pieces were introduced.[12]
In the 14th century,Timur played an enlarged variation of the game which is commonly referred to asTamerlane chess. This complex game involved each pawn having a particular purpose, as well as additional pieces.[54]
The sides are conventionally called White and Black. But, in earlier European chess writings, the sides were often called Red and Black because those were the commonly available colours of ink when handwriting drawing a chess game layout. In such layouts, each piece was represented by its name, often abbreviated (e.g. "ch'r" for French "chevalier" = "knight").
The social value attached to the game – seen as a prestigious pastime associated with nobility and high culture – is clear from the expensive and exquisitely made chessboards of the medieval era.[55] The popularity of chess in the Western courtly society peaked between the 12th and the 15th centuries.[56] The game found mention in thevernacular andLatin language literature throughout Europe, and many works were written on or about chess between the 12th and the 15th centuries.[56]H. J. R. Murray divides the works into three distinct parts: thedidactic works e.g.Alexander of Neckham'sDe scaccis (c. 1180); works of morality likeLiber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum (Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess), written byJacobus de Cessolis; and the works related to various chess problems, written largely after 1205.[56] Chess terms, likecheck, were used by authors as a metaphor for various situations.[57]Chess was soon incorporated into the knightly style of life in Europe.[58]Peter Alfonsi, in his workDisciplina Clericalis, listed chess among the seven skills that a goodknight must acquire.[58] Chess also became a subject of art during this period, with caskets and pendants decorated in various chess forms.[59]Queen Margaret of England had green and redchess sets made of jasper and crystal.[57] KingsHenry I,Henry II andRichard I of England were chess patrons.[17][non-tertiary source needed] KingAlfonso X ofCastile and TsarIvan IV of Russia gained a similar status.[17][non-tertiary source needed]
Saint Peter Damian denounced the bishop of Florence in 1061 for playing chess even when aware of its evil effects on the society.[12] The bishop of Florence defended himself by declaring that chess involved skill and was therefore "unlike other games," and similar arguments followed in the coming centuries.[12] Two incidents in 13th-century London, in which men ofEssex resorted to violence resulting in death as an outcome of playing chess, caused further sensation and alarm.[12] The growing popularity of the game – now associated with revelry and violence – alarmed the Church.[12]
The practice of playing chess for money became so widespread during the 13th century thatLouis IX of France issued an ordinance against gambling in 1254.[55] This ordinance turned out to be unenforceable and was largely neglected by the common public, and even the courtly society, which continued to enjoy the now-prohibited chess tournaments uninterrupted.[55]
The pieces, which had been nonrepresentational in Islamic countries (seepiece values in shatranj), changed shape in Christian cultures. Carved images of men and animals reappeared. The shape of the rook, originally a rectangular block with a V-shaped cut in the top, changed; the two top parts separated by the split tended to get long and hang over, and in some old pictures look like horses' heads. The split top of the piece now called the bishop was interpreted as a bishop's mitre or a fool's cap.
By the mid-12th century, the pieces of the chess set were depicted as kings, queens, bishops, knights andmen at arms.[60] Chessmen made of ivory began to appear inNorth-West Europe, and ornate pieces of traditional knight warriors were used as early as the mid 13th century.[61] The initially nondescript pawn had now found association with thepedes,pedinus, or thefootman, which symbolized both infantry and loyal domestic service.[60]
The following table provides a glimpse of the changes in names and character of chess pieces as they crossed from India through Persia to Europe:[62][63]
| Sanskrit | Bengali | Persian | Arabic | Turkish | Latin | English | Spanish | Portuguese | Italian | French | Catalan | Romanian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Raja (King) | Raja (King) | Shah | Malik | Şah | Rex | King | Rey | Rei | Re | Roi | Rei | Rege |
| Mantri (Minister) | Mantri (Minister) | Vazīr (Vizir) | Wazīr Firz | Vezir | Regina | Queen | Reina Dama | Rainha Dama | Regina | Dame | Dama Reina | Regină |
| Gajah (war elephant) | Hati | Pil | Al-Fīl | Fil | Episcopus Comes Calvus | Bishop Count Councillor | Alfil Obispo | Bispo | Alfiere | Fou | Alfil | Nebun |
| Ashva (horse) | Ghora (horse) | Asp | Fars Hisan | At | Miles Eques | Knight | Caballo | Cavalo | Cavallo | Cavalier | Cavall | Cal |
| Ratha (chariot) | Nowka | Rokh | Qal`a Rukhkh | Kale | Rochus Marchio | Rook Margrave Castle | Torre Roque | Torre | Torre Rocco | Tour | Torre | Turn/Tură |
| Padati (footman footsoldier) | Shoinnya | Piadeh | Baidaq Jondi | Piyon | Pedes Pedinus | Pawn | Peón | Peão | Pedone Pedina | Pion | Peó | Pion |
The game, as played during the early Middle Ages, was slow, with many games lasting days.[12] Some variations in rules began to change the shape of the game by the year 1300. A notable, but initially unpopular, change was the ability of the pawn to move two places in the first move instead of one.[64]
In Europe some of the pieces gradually received new names:
| a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | ||
| 8 |       | 8 | |||||||
| 7 | 7 | ||||||||
| 6 | 6 | ||||||||
| 5 | 5 | ||||||||
| 4 | 4 | ||||||||
| 3 | 3 | ||||||||
| 2 | 2 | ||||||||
| 1 | 1 | ||||||||
| a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | ||
Attempts to make the start of the game run faster to get the opposing pieces in contact sooner included:
Other sporadic variations in the rules of chess included:
.jpg)
The queen and bishop remained relatively weak until between 1475 AD and 1500 AD, in Spain (in theKingdom of Valencia), the queen's and bishop's modern moves started and spread, making chess close to its modern form.[12] The first document showing the Queen (or Dama) moving this way is the allegorical poemScachs d'amor, written inCatalan inValencia in 1475.[68][69] This form of chess got such names as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess" (Italianalla rabiosa = "with the madwoman").[70] This led to much more value being attached to the previously minor tactic ofpawn promotion.[70]Checkmate became easier and games could now be won in fewer moves.[71][72] These new rules quickly spread in Spain and throughout the rest of Western Europe,[73][74] with the exception of the rules about stalemate, which were finalized in the early 19th century.[75] The modern move of the queen may have started as an extension of its older ability to once move two squares with jump, diagonally or straight.Marilyn Yalom says that the new move of the queen started in Spain: seehistory of the queen.
In some areas (e.g. Russia), the queen could also move like a knight.
A poemCaïssa published in 1527 led to the chess rook being often renamed as "castle", and the modern shape of the rook chess piece; seeVida's poem for more information.
An Italian player,Gioacchino Greco, regarded as one of the first true professionals of the game, authored an analysis of a number of composed games that illustrated two differing approaches to chess.[13][non-tertiary source needed] His work was influential in popularizing chess, and demonstrated many theories regarding game play and tactics.[13][non-tertiary source needed]
The first full work dealing with the various winning combinations was written byFrançois-André Danican Philidor of France, regarded as the best chess player in the world for nearly 50 years, and published in the 18th century.[13][non-tertiary source needed] He wrote and publishedL'Analyse des échecs (The Analysis of Chess), an influential work which appeared in more than 100 editions.[13][non-tertiary source needed]
.jpg)
Writings on thetheory of how to play chess began to appear in the 15th century. The oldest surviving printed chess book,Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) bySpanish churchmanLuis Ramirez de Lucena was published inSalamanca in 1497.[73] Lucena and later masters likePortuguesePedro Damiano,ItaliansGiovanni Leonardo Di Bona,Giulio Cesare Polerio andGioachino Greco or Spanish bishopRuy López de Segura developed elements ofopenings and started to analyze simpleendgames.In the 18th century the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. The two most important French masters wereFrançois-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and laterLouis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais who won a famous series of matches with theIrish masterAlexander McDonnell in 1834.[76] Centers of chess life in this period werecoffee houses in big European cities likeCafé de la Régence in Paris.[77] andSimpson's Divan in London.[78]
As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Manychess clubs, chess books and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example the London Chess Club played against theEdinburgh Chess Club in 1824.[79]Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers;Bernhard Horwitz,Josef Kling andSamuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843,von der Lasa published his andBilguer'sHandbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory.
The first recordedchess tournament took place in 1575 inEl Escorial,Spain. It was won by the CalabreseLeonardo di Bona.[80]
Competitive chess became visible in 1834 with theLa Bourdonnais-McDonnell matches, and the1851 London Chess tournament raised concerns about the time taken by the players to deliberate their moves. On recording time it was found that players often took hours to analyze moves, and one player took as much as two hours and 20 minutes to think over a single move at the London tournament. The following years saw the development of speed chess, five-minute chess and the most popular variant, a version allowing a bank of time to each player in which to play a previously agreed number of moves, e.g. two hours for 30 moves. In the final variant, the player who made the predetermined number of moves in the agreed time received additional time budget for his next moves. Penalties for exceeding a time limit came in form of fines and forfeiture. Since fines were easy to bear for professional players, forfeiture became the only effective penalty; this added "lost on time" to the traditional means of losing such ascheckmate and resigning.[14][non-tertiary source needed]
In 1861 the first time limits, using sandglasses, were employed in a tournament match atBristol, England. The sandglasses were later replaced by pendulums. Modern clocks, consisting of two parallel timers with a small button for a player to press after completing a move, were later employed to aid the players. A tiny latch called a flag further helped settle arguments over players exceeding time limit at the turn of the 19th century.[14][non-tertiary source needed]
A Russian composer, Vladimir Korolkov, authored a work entitled "Excelsior" in 1958 in which the White side wins only by making six consecutive captures by a pawn.[81][non-tertiary source needed] Position analysis became particularly popular in the 19th century.[81][non-tertiary source needed] Many leading players were also accomplished analysts, includingMax Euwe,Mikhail Botvinnik,Vasily Smyslov andJan Timman.[81][non-tertiary source needed] Digital clocks appeared in the 1980s.[14][non-tertiary source needed]
Another problem that arose in competitive chess was when adjourning a game for a meal break or overnight. The player who moved last before adjournment would be at a disadvantage, as the other player would have a long period to analyze before having to make a reply when the game was resumed. Preventing access to a chess set to work out moves during the adjournment would not stop him from analyzing the position in his head. Various strange ideas were attempted, but the eventual solution was the "sealed move". The final move before adjournment is not made on the board but instead is written on a piece of paper which the referee seals in an envelope and keeps safe. When the game is continued after adjournment, the referee makes the sealed move and the players resume.
The first modern chess tournament washeld in London in 1851 and won, surprisingly, by GermanAdolf Anderssen, who was relatively unknown at the time. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master, and his brilliant, energetic attacking style became typical for the time, although it was retrospectively regarded asstrategically shallow.[82][83] Sparkling games like Anderssen'sImmortal game andEvergreen Game orMorphy'sOpera game were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art.[84]
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Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players.AmericanPaul Morphy, an extraordinarychess prodigy, won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.[85]Prague-bornWilhelm Steinitz later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position.[86] In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading Polish-German masterJohannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first officialWorld Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematicianEmanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions.[87]
It took a prodigy from Cuba,José Raúl Capablanca (World champion 1921–1927), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. His successor was Russian-FrenchAlexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title toDutch playerMax Euwe in 1935, regaining it two years later.[88]
Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-calledhypermodernists likeAron Nimzowitsch andRichard Réti. They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack.[89]
Since the end of 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title ofchess grandmaster was first formally conferred by TsarNicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine,Tarrasch andMarshall, but this is a disputed claim.[90] The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World Chess Federation (FIDE), founded in 1924 in Paris. In 1927,Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold it wasCzech-English masterVera Menchik.[91]
During World War II, many prominent chess players died or were killed, including:Isaak Appel,Zoltan Balla,Sergey Belavenets,Henryk Friedman,Achilles Frydman,Eduard Gerstenfeld,Alexander Ilyin-Genevsky,Mikhail Kogan,Jakub Kolski,Leon Kremer,Arvid Kubbel,Leonid Kubbel,Salo Landau,Moishe Lowtzky,Vera Menchik,Vladimir Petrov,David Przepiorka,Ilya Rabinovich,Vsevolod Rauzer,Nikolai Riumin,Endre Steiner,Mark Stolberg,Abram Szpiro,Karel Treybal,Alexey Troitzky,Samuil Vainshtein,Heinrich Wolf, andLazar Zalkind.[92]
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After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have controlled the title since then, with a sole interruption. The winner of the 1948 tournament, RussianMikhail Botvinnik, ushered in an era ofSoviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, AmericanBobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975).[93]
In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match.[94] FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into "Interzonal tournaments", where they were joined by players who had qualified from "Zonal tournaments". The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of theCandidates would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system worked on a three-year cycle.[94]
Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost toVasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to theLatvian prodigyMikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.
Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion,ArmenianTigran Petrosian, a genius of defense and strong positional player, was able to hold the title for two cycles, 1963–1969. His successor,Boris Spassky from Russia (1969–1972), was a player able to win in both positional and sharp tactical style.[95]
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The next championship saw the first non-Soviet challenger sinceWorld War II,Bobby Fischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and won the world championship match.
In 1975, Fischer refused to defend his title against SovietAnatoly Karpov when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Karpov defended his title twice againstViktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes.[96]
Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player,Garry Kasparov. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back.[97]
In 1987, the computer database programChessBase was launched with the support of Garry Kasparov.[98] Kasparov was an early adopter of computer chess databases, and soon computers played an integral role in the training and preparation of the world's top players.
In 1993, Garry Kasparov andNigel Short cut ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competingProfessional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 toVladimir Kramnik of Russia.
Earlier, in 1996, Kasparov played a pair ofsix-game exhibition matches againstIBM supercomputerDeep Blue. He won the first match 4–2 but lost the rematch 3½–2½.[99] This defeat symbolically heralded the arrival of chess engines playing at grandmaster strength. In 1999, Kasparov as the reigning world champion played agame online against the world team composed of more than 50,000 participants from more than 75 countries. The moves of the world team were decided by plurality vote, and after 62 moves played over four months Kasparov won the game.[100] In 2006, Kramnik lost a match againstDeep Fritz, effectively ending the era of human-computer chess competition.
TheFIDE World Chess Championship 2006 reunified the titles, when Kramnik beat the FIDE World ChampionVeselin Topalov and became the undisputed World Chess Champion.[101] In September 2007,Viswanathan Anand from India became the next champion by winning a championship tournament.[102] In October 2008, Anand retained his title, decisively winning the rematch against Kramnik.[103]
Anand retained his title until 2013, when he lost it toMagnus Carlsen from Norway. Carlsen defended his title four times, reaching an all-time recordFIDE rating of 2882 in May 2014. Carlsen was the first player to hold the World Classical,Rapid, andBlitz chess championship titles simultaneously. However, he declined to defend his title in 2023, and thus relinquished it to2022 Candidates Tournament runner-upDing Liren, who won the title ina match against Candidates winner Ian Nepomniachtchi.[104][105] Nevertheless, Carlsen remains a dominant player, retaining the world's highest rating and winning the FIDE World Cup in 2023.
In recent years,online chess through the use ofinternet chess servers have exploded in popularity. Internet chess servers have existed since 1992 with the creation of thesubscription service Internet Chess Club,[106] but today the majority of top-level players have moved tofreemium websites likeChess.com (founded in 2007) and, to a lesser extent, free websiteLichess (launched in 2010). These websites feature quick pairing systems and site-specific ratings for bullet, blitz, rapid, and/or classical time controls. They also include additional features such as puzzles, engine analysis, databases, user-created libraries, community blogs and forums, news and articles, video lessons, and more. They also host tournaments where top grandmasters compete for prizes, creating an around-the-clock chess media ecosystem.
In 2020, online chess experienced a spike in popularity due to interest in the Netflix miniseriesThe Queen's Gambit released amidst the2020 Covid Pandemic. In 2023, an even larger spike occurred, driven in large part by viral chess engine Mittens, a playable bot on chess.com.[107] Chess has become anesport, with many top players such as Magnus Carlsen and American GrandmasterHikaru Nakamura streaming their games live.[108][109] Other popular chess content creators includeInternational MasterLevy Rozman (Gothamchess) andAntonio Radić (Agadmator).[110]
Chess engines have also radically transformed, incorporating new technologies into their move search and evaluation functions. Previously, dominant computers such asRybka (released in 2005),Stockfish (2008), Houdini (2010), andKomodo (2010) used a hand-crafted evaluation using variables such as space and piece mobility. In 2017, chess engineAlphaZero won a controversial match[111] against Stockfish using a relatively novelneural network system. Since then, all of the top engines, including Stockfish, Komodo Dragon,Leela Chess Zero (2018), and Torch (2023), have incorporatedefficiently updatable neural networks (NNUEs) into their evaluation functions.
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