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Thehistory of Zambia experienced many stages fromcolonisation to independence from Britain on 24 October 1964.Northern Rhodesia became a Britishsphere of influence in the present-day region of Zambia in 1888, and was officially proclaimed a Britishprotectorate in 1924. After many years of suggested mergers,Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, andNyasaland were merged into the BritishFederation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
In 1960, the British prime minister,Harold Macmillan, declared that the age of colonial rule in Africa was ending. Finally, in December 1963, the federation was dissolved, and theRepublic of Zambia was formed out of Northern Rhodesia on 23 October 1964.[1]
Archaeological excavation work on theZambezi Valley andKalambo Falls show a succession of human cultures. In particular, ancient camping site tools near theKalambo Falls have been radiocarbon dated to more than 36,000 years ago.
The fossil skull remains ofBroken Hill Man, dated between 300,000 and 125,000 years BC, further shows that the area was inhabited by early humans.[2]
The area of modern Zambia is known to have been inhabited by theKhoisan andBatwa peoples until around AD 300 when migratingBantu began to settle around these areas.[3] It is believed that theKhoisan people groups originated in East Africa and spread southwards around 150,000 years ago. The Twa people were split into two groups: TheKafwe Twa lived around theKafue flats while the other, TheLukanga Twa lived around theLukanga Swamp.[4] Many of the ancient rock arts in Zambia like theMwela Rock Paintings,Mumbwa Caves, andNachikufu Cave are attributed to these earlyhunter-gatherer groups. The Khoisan, and more especially the Twa, formed apatron-client relationship with farming Bantu peoples across central and southern Africa but were eventually either displaced by or absorbed into the Bantu groups.
 | This section needs to beupdated. The reason given is:Dated scholarship. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(May 2025) |
The Bantu people or Abantu (meaning people) are an enormous and diverseethnolinguistic group that comprise the majority of people in much ofEast,Southern andCentral Africa. Due to Zambia's location at the crossroads ofCentral Africa,Southern Africa, and theAfrican Great Lakes, the history of the people that constitute modern Zambians is a history of these three regions.
Many of the historical events in these three regions happened simultaneously. Thus, Zambia's history, like many African nation's histories, cannot be presented perfectly chronologically. The early history of the peoples of modern Zambia is deduced from oral records, archaeology, and written records mostly from non-Africans.[5]
The Bantu people originally lived inWest/Central Africa around what is todayCameroon/Nigeria. Around 4000 to 3000 years ago, they began a millennia-long expansion into much of the continent. This event has been called theBantu Expansion, which was one of the largest human migrations in history. The Bantu are believed to have been the first to have broughtiron working technology into large parts of Africa. The Bantu Expansion happened primarily through two routes: one was western via theCongo Basin and the other was eastern via the African Great Lakes.[6]
According to recent scholarship by Nicholas Katanekwa, the earliest Bantu people in Zambia were the "New Kalundu" culture, arriving from the west along the Zambezi valley from the fourth century CE. These groups are associated with Guthrie group R, as well as the ancestors of the Shona, Venda, ans especially Mbwela peoples.
The next Bantu people to arrive in Zambia came through the eastern route via the African Great Lakes.
They arrived later in the 1st millennium AD. Among them were theTonga people (also called Ba-Tonga, "Ba-" meaning "men") and theBa-Ila and other related groups who settled aroundSouthern Zambia nearZimbabwe. According to Ba-Tonga oral records, they are believed to have come from the east near the "big sea".
They were later joined by theBa-Tumbuka who settled aroundEastern Zambia andMalawi.
These first Bantu people lived in large villages. They never had an organised unit under a chief or headman and worked as a community and help each other in times of field preparation for their crops. Villages moved around frequently as the soil became exhausted due to using theslash-and-burn technique of planting crops. They also kept large herds of cattle which formed an important part of their societies.[7]
The first Bantu communities in Zambia were extremely self-sufficient. Many groups of people who encountered them were very impressed by this self-sufficiency. The earlyEuropean missionaries that settled inSouthern Zambia also noted the extreme independence of these Bantu societies, one of these missionaries noted:
"[If] weapons for war, hunting, and domestic purposes are needed, the [Tonga] man goes to the hills and digs until he finds the iron ore. He smelts it and with the iron thus obtained makes axes, hoes, and other useful implements. He burns wood and makes charcoal for his forge. His bellows are made from the skins of animals and the pipes are clay tile, and the anvil and hammers are also pieces of the iron he has obtained. He moulds, welds, shapes, and performs all the work of the ordinary blacksmith."[8]
These early Bantu settlers also participated in the trade at the siteIngombe Ilede (which translates as "sleeping cow" inChi-Tonga because the fallen baobab tree appears to resembles a cow) inSouthern Zambia, at this trading site they met numerousKalanga/Shona traders fromGreat Zimbabwe andSwahili traders from the East AfricanSwahili Coast. Ingombe Ilede was one of the most important trading posts for rulers of Great Zimbabwe, others being the Swahili port cities like ofSofala.
The goods traded at Ingombe Ilede included: fabrics, beads, gold, and bangles. Some of these items came from what is today southernDemocratic Republic of Congo andKilwa Kisiwani while others as far away asIndia,China and theArab World.[9] The African traders were later joined by thePortuguese in the 16th century.[10]
The decline of Great Zimbabwe, due to increasing trade competition from otherKalanga/Shona kingdoms likeKhami andMutapa, spelt the end ofIngombe Ilede.
The third mass settlement ofBantu people into Zambia was of people groups that are believed to have taken the central-western route of the Bantu migration through theCongo Basin. These Bantu people spent the majority of their existence in what is today theDemocratic Republic of Congo and are ancestors of the majority of modern Zambians.[11]
_Luba_peoples_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.png)
While it was previously speculated that theBemba people orAbaBemba have a strong ancient connection to theKongo Kingdom throughBaKongo rulerMwene Kongo VIII Mvemba this, is not supported by evidence.
Luba-Lunda States
The Bemba, along with other related groups like theLamba,Bisa,Senga,Kaonde,Swaka,Nkoya andSoli, formed integral parts of theLuba Kingdom in Upemba part of the Democratic Republic of Congo and have a strong relation to theBaLuba people. The area which the Luba Kingdom occupied has been inhabited by early farmers and iron-workers since the 300's AD. Over time these communities learned to usenets,harpoons, makedugout canoes, clearcanals through swamps and makedams as high as 2.5 meters.
As a result, they grew adiverse economy trading fish, copper and iron items, and salt for goods from other parts ofAfrica like theSwahili Coast and, later on, thePortuguese. From these communities arose theLuba Kingdom in the 14th century.[12]
The Luba Kingdom was a large kingdom with acentralised government and smaller independentchiefdoms. It had large trading networks that linked the forests in theCongo Basin and the mineral-rich plateaus of what is todayCopperbelt Province and stretched from theAtlantic Coast to theIndian Ocean Coast. The arts were also held in high esteem in the kingdom and artisans where held in high regards.[12]
TheLuba Kingdom literature was also well developed. One renownedLuba genesis story that articulated the distinction between two types of Luba emperors as follows:
"Nkongolo Mwamba, the red king, andIlunga Mbidi Kiluwe, a prince of legendary black complexion. Nkongolo Mwamba is the drunken and cruel despot, Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, the refined and gentle prince. Nkongolo the red is a man without manners, a man who eats in public, gets drunk, and cannot control himself, whereas [Ilunga] Mbidi Kiluwe is a man of reservation, obsessed with good manners; he does not eat in public, controls his language and his behaviour, and keeps a distance from the vices and modus vivendi of ordinary people. Nkongolo Mwamba symbolizes the embodiment of tyranny, whereas Mbidi Kiluwe remains the admired caring and compassionate kin."[13]
In the same region of Southern Congo theLunda people were made into a satellite of theLuba empire and adopted forms of Luba culture and governance and thus became theLunda empire to the south. According to Lunda genesis myths, a Luba hunter namedChibinda Ilunga son ofIlunga Mbidi Kiluwe introduced the Luba model of statecraft to the Lunda sometime around 1600 when he married a local Lunda princess named Lueji and was granted control of her kingdom. Most rulers who claimed descent from Luba ancestors were integrated into the Luba empire. The Lunda kings, however, remained separate and actively expanded their political and economic dominance over the region.[14]
The Lunda, like its parent state Luba, also traded with both coasts, theAtlantic andIndian Ocean. With rulerMwaant Yaav Naweej had established trade routes to the Atlantic coast and initiated direct contact with European traders eager forslaves and forest products and controlling the regionalcopper trade, and settlements aroundLake Mweru regulated commerce from theEast African coast.[14]
TheLuba-Lunda states eventually declined as a result of bothAtlantic slave trade in the west andIndian Ocean slave trade in the east and wars with breakaway factions of the kingdoms. TheChokwe, a group that is highly related to theLuvale and formed a Lunda satellite state, initially suffered from the European demand for slaves but once the broke away from the Lunda State, they defeated the previous parent state and became notorious slave traders, exporting slaves to both coasts. The Chokwe eventually were defeated by the other ethnic groups and the Portuguese.[15]
This instability caused the collapse of the Luba-Lunda States and a dispersal of people into various parts of Zambia from theDemocratic Republic of the Congo. The majority of Zambians trace their ancestry to the Luba-Lunda and surrounding Central African states.[16]
Maravi Confederacy
In the 1200s, before the founding of the Luba-Lunda states, a group of Bantu people started migrating from theCongo basin toLake Mweru then finally settled aroundLake Malawi. These migrants are believed to have been one of the inhabitants around theUpemba area in theDemocratic Republic of Congo. By the 1400s these groups of migrants collectively called the Maravi, most prominently among them was theChewa people, started assimilating other Bantu groups like theTumbuka.[17]
In 1480 theMaravi Empire was founded by the Kalonga (paramount chief of the Maravi) from the Phiri clan one of the main clans with the others being Banda, Mwale and Nkhoma. The Maravi Empire stretched from theIndian Ocean through what today isMozambique to Zambia and large parts ofMalawi. The political organization of the Maravi resembled theLuba and is believed to have originated from there, the primary export of the Maravi was Ivory which was transported to Swahili brokers.[17]
Iron was also manufactured and exported. In the 1590s thePortuguese endeavoured tomonopolize the Maravi export trade. This attempt was met with outrage by the Maravi of Lundu who released theirWaZimba armed force. The WaZimba sacked the Portuguese trade towns of Tete, Sena and various other towns.[17]
The Maravi are also believed to have brought the traditions that would becomeNyau secret society from theUpemba. The Nyau form the cosmology or indigenous religion of the people of Maravi. TheNyau society consists of ritual dance performances and masks used for the dances, this belief system spread around the region.[18]
The Maravi went into decline due to succession disputes within the confederacy, attack by theNgoni and slave raids from theYao.[17]
Mutapa Empire & Mfecane
AsGreat Zimbabwe was in decline. One of its princes,Nyatsimba Mutota, broke away from the state forming a new empire calledMutapa. The title ofMwene Mutapa, meaning "Ravager of the Lands", was bestowed on him and subsequent rulers.[19]
TheMutapa Empire ruled territory between theZambezi andLimpopo rivers, in what is now Zambia,Zimbabwe andMozambique, from the 14th to the 17th century. By its peak, Mutapa had conquered the Dande area of theTonga and Tavara. The Mutapa Empire predominately engaged in theIndian Ocean transcontinental trade with and via theWaSwahili. They primary exported gold and ivory for silk and ceramics from Asia.[20]
Like their contemporaries inMaravi, Mutapa had problems with the arrivingPortuguese traders. The peak of this uneasy relationship was reached when the Portuguese attempted to influence the kingdoms internal affairs by establishing markets in the kingdom and converting the population toChristianity. This action caused outrage by theMuslim WaSwahili living in the capital. This chaos gave the Portuguese the excuse they were searching for to warrant an attack on the kingdom and try to control its gold mines and ivory routes. This attack failed when the Portuguese succumbed to disease along theZambezi river.[21]
In the 1600s, internal disputes and civil war began the decline ofMutapa. The weakened kingdom was finally conquered by the Portuguese and was eventually taken over by rivalShona states.[21]
It is hypothesised byJulian Cobbing that the presence of earlyEuropeansslave trading and attempts to control resources in various parts ofBantu Speaking Africa caused the gradualmilitarization of the people in the region. This can be observed with the Maravi's WaZimba warrior cast who, once defeating the Portuguese, remained quite militaristic afterwards.
The Portuguese presence in the region was also a major reason for the founding of theRozvi Empire, a breakaway state of Mutapa. The ruler of the Rozvi,Changamire Dombo, became one of the most powerful leaders in South-Central Africa's history. Under his leadership, the Rozvi defeated the Portuguese and expelled them from their trading posts along the Zambezi river.[22]
But perhaps the most notable instance of this increased militarization was the rise of theZulu under the leadership ofShaka. Pressures from theEnglish colonialists in theCape and increased militarization of the Zulu resulted in theMfecane (the crushing). The Zulu expanded by assimilating the women and children of tribes they defeated, if the men of theseNguni tribes escaped slaughter, they used the military tactics of the Zulu to attack other groups.[23]
This caused mass displacements, wars and raids throughout Southern, Central and Eastern Africa asNguni orNgoni tribes made their way throughout the region and is referred to as theMfecane. The arrivingNguni under the leadership ofZwagendaba crossed the Zambezi river moving northwards. The Ngoni were the final blow to the already weakenedMaravi Empire. Many Nguni eventually settled around what is today Zambia,Malawi,Mozambique andTanzania and assimilated into neighboring tribes.[23]
In thewestern part ofZambia, anotherSouthern African group ofSotho-Tswana heritage called theKololo manage to conquer the local inhabitants who were migrants from the fallenLuba andLunda states called theLuyana or Aluyi. The Luyana established theBarotse Kingdom on thefloodplains of the Zambezi upon their arrival from Katanga. Under the Kololo, the Kololo language was imposed upon the Luyana until the Luyana revolted and overthrew the Kololo by this time the Luyana language was largely forgotten and a new hybrid language emerged,SiLozi and the Luyana began to refer to themselves asLozi.[24]
At the end of the 18th century, some of theMbunda migrated toBarotseland,Mongu upon the migration of among others, theCiyengele.[25][26] The Aluyi and their leader, the Litunga Mulambwa, especially valued the Mbunda for their fighting ability.
By the late 19th century, most of the various peoples of Zambia were established in their current areas.
In 1888,Cecil Rhodes who was spearheading British commercial and political interests inCentral Africa, obtained a mineral rights concessions from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and SouthernRhodesia, nowZambia andZimbabwe, were proclaimed a Britishsphere of influence. In the beginning, the territory was administered by Rhodes'British South Africa Company (BSAC), which showed little interest in the province and used it mainly as a source of labour.[27]
The most important factor in the colony's economy was copper. The discovery of which is due partly to an American prospector,Frederick Russell Burnham, who in 1895 led and oversaw the massive Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition which established that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa.[28] Along theKafue River in then Northern Rhodesia, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered natives wearing copper bracelets.[29]
In 1923 the British government decided not to renew the company'scharter. As a result,Southern Rhodesia was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923. After negotiations, the administration ofNorthern Rhodesia was transferred to the BritishColonial Office in 1924 as aprotectorate,[30] withLivingstone as capital. The capital was transferred to the more centralLusaka in 1935.[31] ALegislative Council was established, of which five members were elected by the small European minority (only 4,000 people), but none by the African population.[32][33]
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In 1928, enormouscopper deposits were discovered in the region which then became known as theCopperbelt. This transformed Northern Rhodesia from a prospective land of colonization for white farmers to a copper exporter. By 1938, the country produced 13% of the world's copper extraction. The sector was developed by two companies: theAnglo American Corporation (AAC) and the South AfricanRhodesian Selection Trust (RST), who controlled the sector until independence.
The poor safety record and increased taxes triggered theAfrican mineworkers' Copperbelt strike in 1935[34]. The strike was crushed by the authorities and six miners were killed.[33]
During theSecond World War, white miners went out on strike in 1940; realizing the importance of their products for the war, they demanded higher salaries. This strike was followed by another by African mine workers.[35]
Even before the war, there had been talks about merging the two Rhodesias, but the process had been halted by the British authorities, and brought to an absolute stop by the war. Finally, in 1953, both Rhodesias were joined withNyasaland (nowMalawi) to form theCentral African Federation. Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crises that afflicted the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.[33]
Atwo-stage election held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-b under a new constitution, and a new national assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On 31 December 1963, the federation was dissolved, andNorthern Rhodesia became theRepublic of Zambia on24 October 1964.[36]
At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government,[37] and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. Most of Zambia's neighbouring countries were stillcolonies or under whiteminority rule.
TheUnited National Independence Party (UNIP) won thepre-independence elections, gaining 55 of the 75 seats. TheZambian African National Congress won 10 seats, and theNational Progressive Party won all the 10 seats reserved for whites.[38]Kenneth Kaunda was electedPrime Minister, and later the same year president, as the country adopted a presidential system.
Kaunda adopted anideology ofAfrican socialism, close to that ofJulius Nyerere inTanzania. Economical policies focused oncentral planning andnationalisation, and a system ofone party rule was put in place.
In 1968 Kaunda wasre-elected as president. During the following years, Zambia adopted a one party system. In 1972 all political parties except UNIP were banned, and this was formalized in a new constitution that was adopted in 1973. The constitution framed a system called "one-party participatory democracy", which in practice, meant that UNIP became the sole political factor in the country. It provided for a strongpresident and aunicameralNational Assembly. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of UNIP. The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In legislative elections, only candidates running for UNIP were allowed to participate. Even though inter-party competition was out of question, the contest for seats within UNIP was energetic. In the presidential elections, the only candidate allowed to run was the one elected as president of UNIP at the party's general conference. In this way Kaunda was re-elected unopposed with a yes or no vote in1973,1978,1983 and1988.[39]
This did not, however, mean that there was no dissension to the imposition of a one-party rule in the country or within UNIP.Sylvester Mwamba Chisembele who was Cabinet Minister for Western Province (previously Barotse Province) together with UNIP leaders from 7 out of the 8 Provinces established a Committee of 14. The objective of the Committee of 14 which consisted two leaders from each of the 7 provinces was the establishment of a democratically elected council of two leaders from each province to rule the country by consensus with the President as Head of State. If this had been achieved, it would have meant the curtailing of the absolute power residing in President Kaunda. The Committee of 14 attended a meeting in State House at which President Kaunda agreed to consider their proposals. However, later he banned the Committee of 14 and this action was followed by the suspension of Sylvester Chisembele and several leaders were sacked.[40] Chisembele later rejoined the Cabinet as Minister for Eastern Province and two years later in 1977 he was transferred in the same position to the Copperbelt Province, where the political situation was tense, especially so because of the forthcoming General Elections. Simon M. Kapwepwe and Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula, who, before the declaration of a One Party State, had been leaders of the UPP and ANC political parties respectively, had joined UNIP with the intention of challenging for the Presidency. However, their attempt to challenge President Kaunda for the Presidency on the UNIP ticket failed as both were prevented and disqualified by the manipulations of President Kaunda, who stood unopposed. Simon Kapwepwe and Harry Nkumbula challenged the resultant 1978 election of President Kaunda in the High Court, but unsurprisingly their action was unsuccessful.
After independence, Zambia adopted aleft-wing economic policy. The economy was, to some extent, run by central planning under five year plans. Private companies werenationalised and incorporated into large state-owned conglomerates. The government's goal was to be self-sufficient, which it sought to achieve throughimport substitution. At first, the plan worked and the economy grew steadily. However, in the mid-1970s, the economy started to decline drastically. During the period between 1975 and 1990 Zambia's economy dropped by approximately 30%.[41]
To deal with the crisis, Zambia took big loans from theInternational Monetary Fund and theWorldbank hoping that copper prices would rise again soon, instead of issuing structural reforms.
Internationally, Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule. During the next decade, it activelysupported movements such as the National Unions for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) under the independence war and under the subsequentcivil war, theZimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) inSouthern Rhodesia, and theAfrican National Congress (ANC) in their struggle againstapartheid inthe Republic of South Africa, and the South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) in their struggle for independence forNamibia. Zambia also hosted some of the movements. For instance, the ANC exile headquarters were in Lusaka, and ZAPU had a military base in Zambia.[42] This resulted in security problems, as the South Africa and South Rhodesia raided targets inside Zambia on several occasions.[43]
Rhodesian counterinsurgency operations extended into Zambia afterZimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) rebels shot down two unarmedVickers Viscount civilian airliners (Air Rhodesia Flight 825 on 3 September 1978 andAir Rhodesia Flight 827 on 12 February 1979) with Soviet-suppliedSA-7 heat-seeking missiles. In retaliation for the shooting down of Flight 825 in September 1978, theRhodesian Air Force attacked the ZIPRA guerrilla base at Westlands farm near Lusaka in October 1978, warning Zambian forces by radio not to interfere.[44]
Conflicts with Rhodesia resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, theKaribahydroelectric station on theZambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity.TAZARA, a railway to the Tanzanian port ofDar es Salaam, built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on the railway line south to South Africa and west through an increasingly war-ravaged Angola.[45]
Civil strife in neighbouringMozambique and Angola created large numbers of refugees, many of whom fled to Zambia.
Internationally, Zambia was an active member of theNon-Aligned Movement (NAM), and hosted a summit in Lusaka in 1970. Kenneth Kaunda served as the movements chairman 1970–1973. Among the NAM countries Zambia was especially close toYugoslavia. Outside the NAM Zambia also had close relations with thePeople's Republic of China.[46]
In theSecond Congo War, Zambia backed Zimbabwe and the Congo but did not participate as a belligerent.[citation needed]
One party rule and the declining economy created disappointment among the people. Severalstrikes hit the country in 1981.[47] The government responded by arresting severalunion leaders, among themFrederick Chiluba. In 1986 and 1987, protests arose again inLusaka and theCopperbelt. These were followed by riots over risingfood prices in 1990, in which at least 30 people were killed. The same year, the state owned radio claimed that Kaunda had been removed from office by thearmy. This was not true, and the1990 Zambian coup d'état attempt failed.[48]
These extensive protests made Kaunda realise the need forreform. He promised areferendum onmultiparty democracy, and lifted the ban on political parties. This resulted in the quick formation of eleven new parties. Among theseMovement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), led by former union leader Frederick Chiluba, was the most important. After pressure for the new parties the referendum was canceled in favour of direct multiparty election.[49]
After a newconstitution had been drafted,elections were held in 1991. They were generally regarded to have been free and fair, and Chiluba won 76% of the presidential vote, and the MMD 125 of the 150 seats in theNational Assembly, with UNIP taking the remaining 25.[38]
Economically, Chiluba, despite being a former union leader, stood to the right of Kaunda. With support from theInternational Monetary Fund andWorld Bank, to which Zambia was heavily indebted, he liberalised the economy by restricting government interference, re-privatising state-owned enterprises, such as the important copper mining industry, and removing subsidies on various commodities, most notably oncorn meal.
When one party rule was first abolished in 1991, many expected a more democratic future for Zambia. These expectations were, however, clouded by the MMD's treatment of the opposition. Questionable amendments of the constitution and detentions of political opponents caused major criticism, and some donor countries, i.e., the United Kingdom and Denmark, withdrew theiraid.
In 1993, the government-owned newspaper,The Times of Zambia, reported a story about a secret UNIP plan to take control of government by unconstitutional means, called the "Zero Option Plan". The plan included industrial unrest, promotion of violence and organisations of mass protests. UNIP did not deny the existence of such a plan, but underlined that it was not a part of their official policy, but the views of extremists within the party. The government responded by declaring astate of emergency and putting 26 people into detention. Of these, seven, including Kenneth Kaunda's sonWezi Kaunda were charged with offences against the security of the state. The rest were released.[50]
Prior to the1996 elections, UNIP formed an alliance with six other opposition parties. Kenneth Kaunda had earlier retired from politics, but after internal turbulence in the party due to the "Zero Option Plan" scandal, he returned, replacing his own successorKebby Musokotwane. Chiluba's government then amended the constitution, banning people whose parents were not both Zambian citizens from becoming president. This was directly aimed at Kaunda, whose parents were both fromMalawi. In protest UNIP and its allies boycotted the elections, which were then easily won by Chiluba and the MMD.
In 1997, matters escalated. On 28 October acoup d'état attempt took place, as a group of army commanders took control over the national radio station, broadcasting a message stating that Chiluba was no longer president. The coup was brought to an end by regular forces, after Chiluba had again declared a state of emergency. One person was killed during the operation. After the failed coup, the police arrested at least 84 people accused of involvement.[51] Among these were Kenneth Kaunda andDean Mungomba, leader of the opposition party theZambia Democratic Congress. The arrests were condemned and criticised as illegal inside as well as outside Zambia, and accusations oftorture were made as well.[52] Kaunda was released in June the following year, but 54 of the soldiers who took part in the coup were convicted and sentenced todeath The sentence was appealed to Zambia's supreme court in 2003, which commuted the death sentence for ten soldiers but upheld the death sentence for the other 44.[53] However in 2004, Zambia's presidentLevy Mwanawasa commuted the death sentence for 22 of the coup plotters and released 14 of them as having served their prison sentence. One of the coup leaders, Jack Chiti, was also released on humanitarian grounds due to cancer.[54]
Prior to theelections in 2001, Chiluba tried to change the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. He was forced to step back on this point after protest from within the party as well as from the Zambian public. He attempted to alter the constitution to allow him to run for a third term in office in 2001, but stood down after huge public protests. His successor wasLevy Patrick Mwanawasa.[55]
From 2011 to 2014, Zambia's president had beenMichael Sata, until Sata died on 28 October 2014. He was the second Zambian leader to die in office afterLevy Mwanawasa in 2008.[56]Rupiah Banda was the president of Zambia after the death of Mwanawasa from 2008 to 2011. He lost the election to Michael Sata in 2011.[57]After Sata's death, Vice PresidentGuy Scott, a Zambian of Scottish descent, became acting President of Zambia. On 24 January 2015, it was announced thatEdgar Chagwa Lungu had won the election to become the 6th President in a tightly contested race. In August2016 Zambian general election, president Edgar Lungu won re-election narrowly in the first round of the election. The opposition had allegations of fraud and the governingPatriotic Front (PF) rejected the allegations made by opposition UPND party.[58]
In August 2021 presidentialelection, opposition leaderHakainde Hichilema defeated the incumbent, President Edgar Lungu, by a landslide.[59] On 24 August 2021, Hakainde Hichilema was sworn in as the newPresident of Zambia.[60]
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