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Yemen is one of the oldest centers ofcivilization in theNear East.[1] Its relatively fertile land and adequate rainfall in a moister climate helped sustain a stable population, a feature recognized by the ancient Greek geographerPtolemy, who described Yemen asEudaimon Arabia, meaning "Fertile Arabia" or "Happy Arabia". TheSouth Arabian alphabet was developed at latest between the 12th century BC and the 6th century AD, when Yemen was successively dominated by six civilizations that controlled the lucrativespice trade:Ma'in,Qataban,Hadhramaut,Awsan,Saba, andHimyar.[2] With the 630 ADarrival ofIslam, Yemen became part of the widerMuslim world, where it has remained.
With its long sea border between earlycivilizations, Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic location in terms of trade on the west of theArabian Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existed in themountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC.[3] Little is known about ancient Yemen and how exactly it transitioned from nascentBronze Age civilizations to more trade-focused caravan kingdoms.
TheSabaean Kingdom came into existence from at least the 11th century BC.[4] There were four major kingdoms or tribal confederations inSouth Arabia:Saba,Hadramout,Qataban andMa'in. Saba is believed to be biblicalSheba and was the most prominent federation.[5] The Sabaean rulers adopted the titleMukarrib generally thought to mean "unifier".[6] The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them all.[7] The Sabaeans built theGreat Dam of Marib around 940 BC.[8] The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.
The SabaeanMukarribKarib'il Watar I, in the 7th century BC, recorded the undertaking of eight campaigns,[9][10] one in which he defeated the reign ofAwsan, and divided its land between himself and his allies.[11] Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula. Instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes.[12] Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, where theSouth Arabian alphabet religion and pantheon, and the South Arabian style of art and architecture were introduced.[13][14][15] The Sabaeans created a sense of identity through their religion. They worshippedAlmaqah and believed themselves to be his children.[16] For centuries, the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across theBab-el-Mandeb, astrait separating the Arabian Peninsula from theHorn of Africa and theRed Sea from the Indian Ocean.[17]
By the 3rd century BC,Qataban,Hadramout andMa'in became independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni arena. Minaean rule stretched as far asDedan,[18] with their capital atBaraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control overMa'in after the collapse ofQataban in 50 BC. By the time of theRoman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia.[19]Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans.[20] The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge aboutArabia Felix or Yemen. The Roman army of ten thousand men reachedMarib, but was not able to conquer the city, according toCassius Dio[21] andPliny the Elder.[22][23][24]Strabo's close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend's failure in his writings. It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and sixty days to return toEgypt. The Romans blamed theirNabataean guide and executed him for treachery.[25] No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet been found.
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After the Roman expedition – perhaps earlier – the country fell into chaos and two clans, namelyHamdan andHimyar, claimed kingship, assuming the titleKing ofSheba andDhu Raydan.[26] Dhu Raydan (i.e.Himyarites) allied themselves withAksum in Ethiopia against the Sabaeans.[27] The chief ofBakil and king ofSaba and Dhu Raydan,El Sharih Yahdhib, launched successful campaigns against the Himyarites andHabashat (i.e. Aksum), El Sharih took proud of his campaigns and added the titleYahdhib to his name, which means "suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them to pieces.[28]Sana'a came into prominence during his reign as he built theGhumdan Palace to be his place of residence.
TheHimyarite annexedSana'a fromHamdanc. AD 100.[29]Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them, however, and regainedSana'a in around 180.[30] It was not until 275 thatShammar Yahri'sh conqueredHadramout andNajran andTihama, thus unifying Yemen and consolidatingHimyarite rule.[31][32] The Himyarites rejectedpolytheism and adhered to a consensual form ofmonotheism calledRahmanism.[33] In 354,Roman EmperorConstantius II sent an embassy headed byTheophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity.[34] According toPhilostorgius, the mission was resisted by local Jews.[35] Several inscriptions have been found inHebrew andSabaean praising the ruling house in Jewish terms forhelping and empowering the People ofIsrael.[36]
According to Islamic traditions, KingAs'ad The Perfect mounted a military expedition to support the Jews ofYathrib.[37]Abu Karib As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to central Arabia orNajd to support the vassalKinda against theLakhmids.[38] However, no direct reference to Judaism orYathrib was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Karib As'ad died in 445, having reigned for almost 50 years.[39] By 515, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for anAksumite intervention. The last Himyarite kingMu'di Karab Ya'fir was supported by Aksum against hisJewish rivals. Mu'di Karab was Christian and launched a campaign against theLakhmids in SouthernIraq, with the support of other Arab allies ofThe Byzantine Empire.[40] TheLakhmids were a Bulwark ofPersia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like Christianity.[41]
After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur around 521 AD, a Himyarite Jewishwarlord calledDhu Nuwas rose to power. He began a campaign of violence against Christians under his control. Dhu Nawas executed Byzantine traders, converted the church inZafar into a synagogue, and killed its priests, among other acts of conquest.[42][43] He marched toward the port city ofMocha, killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000.[44] Then he settled a camp inBab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum. At the same time, Yousef sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul, toNajran. Sharahil had reinforcements from the Bedouins of theKinda andMadh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the Christian community in Najran by means of execution andforced conversion to Judaism. Blady speculates that he was likely motivated by stories about Byzantine violence against Byzantine Jewish communities in his decision to begin his campaign of state violence against Christians existing within his territory.[45][42][46]
Christian sources portray Dhu Nuwas as a Jewish zealot, while Islamic traditions say that he marched around 20,000 Christians into trenches filled with flaming oil, burning them alive.[42] Himyarite inscriptions attributed to Dhu Nuwas himself show great pride in killing 27,000, enslaving 20,500 Christians inẒafār andNajran and killing 570,000 beasts of burden belonging to them as a matter of imperial policy.[47] It is reported that Byzantium EmperorJustin I sent a letter to the AksumiteKing Kaleb, pressuring him to "...attack the abominable Hebrew."[44] A military alliance of Byzantine, Aksumite, and Arab Christians successfully defeated Dhu Nuwas around 525–527 AD and a client Christian king was installed on the Himyarite throne.[46]
Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of an ancient Sabaean palace inMarib to build a church on its ruins.[48] Three new churches were built in Najran alone.[48] Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios's authority.Esimiphaios was displaced in 531 by a warrior namedAbraha, who refused to leave Yemen and declared himself an independent king ofHimyar. EmperorJustinian I sent an embassy to Yemen. He wanted the officiallyChristianHimyarites to use their influence on the tribes in inner Arabia to launch military operations againstPersia.Justinian I bestowed thedignity of king upon the Arabsheikhs of Kinda andGhassan in central and north Arabia.[49] From early on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the coast of theRed Sea. They were successful in convertingAksum and influencing their culture. The results with regard to Yemen were rather disappointing.[49]
A Kindite prince calledYazid bin Kabshat rebelled againstAbraha and his Arab Christian allies. A truce was reached onceThe Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.[50]Abraha died around 555–565 AD; no reliable sources regarding his death are available. TheSasanid empire annexedAden around 570. Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except forAden andSana'a. This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since the greater part of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival ofIslam in 630.[51]
Prophet Muhammad sent his cousinAli toSana'a and its surroundings around 630. At the time, Yemen was the most advanced region inArabia.[52] TheBanu Hamdan confederation were among the first to acceptIslam.Muhammad sentMuadh ibn Jabal as well to Al-Janad in present-dayTaiz, and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders. The reason behind this was the division among the tribes and the absence of a strong central authority in Yemen during the days of the prophet.[53] Major tribes, includingHimyar, sent delegations toMedina during theYear of delegations around 630–631. Several Yemenis had already acceptedIslam, includingAmmar ibn Yasir,Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami,Miqdad ibn Aswad,Abu Musa Ashaari andSharhabeel ibn Hasana. A man named'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi expelled the remaining Persians and claimed to be aprophet ofRahman. He was assassinated by a Yemeni ofPersian origin calledFayruz al-Daylami. Christians, who were mainly staying inNajran along withJews, agreed to payJizya, although some Jews converted to Islam, such asWahb ibn Munabbih andKa'ab al-Ahbar.
The country was stable during theRashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic conquests ofEgypt,Iraq,Persia, theLevant,Anatolia, North Africa,Sicily andAndalusia.[54][55][56] Yemeni tribes that settled inSyria, contributed significantly to the solidification ofUmayyad rule, especially during the reign ofMarwan I. Powerful Yemenite tribes likeKindah were on his side during theBattle of Marj Rahit.[57][58] Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in North Africa andAndalusia. Effective control over entire Yemen was not achieved by theUmayyad Caliphate.ImamAbd Allah ibn Yahya was elected in 745 to leadthe Ibāḍī movement inHadramawt andOman. He expelled theUmayyad governor fromSana'a and capturedMecca andMedina in 746.[59] Ibn Yahya, known by his nicknameTalib al-Haqq (Seeker of the Truth), established the firstIbadi state in the history ofIslam but was killed inTaif in around 749.[59]
Muhammad ibn Ziyad founded theZiyadid dynasty inTihama around 818; the state stretched fromHaly (In present-day Saudi Arabia) toAden. They nominally recognized theAbbasid Caliphate but were in fact ruling independently from their capital inZabid.[60] The history of this dynasty is obscure; they never exercised control over the highlands andHadramawt, and did not control more than a coastal strip of the Yemen (Tihama) bordering theRed Sea.[61] AHimyarite clan called theYufirids established their rule over the highlands fromSaada toTaiz, whileHadramawt was anIbadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids inBaghdad.[60] By virtue of its location, theZiyadid dynasty ofZabid developed a special relationship withAbyssinia. The chief of theDahlak islands exported slaves as well as amber and leopard hides to the then ruler of Yemen.[62]
The firstZaidiimam,Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived to Yemen in 893. He was the founder of theZaidi imamate in 897. He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come toSaada fromMedina to arbitrate tribal disputes.[63] Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands, as the tribes ofHashid andBakil, later known asthe twin wings of the imamate, accepted his authority.[64]Yahya established his influence inSaada andNajran; he also tried to captureSana'a from theYufirids in 901, but he failed miserably. In 904, the newly establishedIsma'ili followers invadedSana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim retreated toAl-Jawf, and between 904 and 913, Sana'a was conquered no less than 20 times by Isma'ilis andYufirids.[65] As'ad ibn Ibrahim regainedSana'a in 915. The country was in turmoil asSana'a became a battlefield for the three dynasties as well as independent tribes.
TheYufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burnedZabid in 989, severely weakening theZiyadid dynasty.[66] TheZiyadid monarchs lost effective power after 989, or even earlier than that. Meanwhile, a succession of slaves held power inZabid and continued to govern in the name of theirmasters eventually establishing their owndynasty around 1022 or 1050 according to different sources.[67] Although they were recognized by theAbbasid Caliphate inBaghdad, they ruled no more thanZabid and four districts to its north.[68] The rise of theIsmailiShiaSulayhid dynasty in the Yemeni highlands reduced their history to a series of intrigues.
TheSulayhid dynasty was founded in the northern highlands around 1040. At the time, Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties.In 1060,Ali ibn Mohammed Al-Sulayhi conqueredZabid and killed its ruler Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid dynasty, whose sons were forced to flee toDahlak.[69]Hadramawt fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture ofAden in 1062.[70] By 1063, Ali had subjugatedGreater Yemen.[71] He then marched towardHejaz and occupiedMakkah.[72] Ali was married toAsma bint Shihab, who governed Yemen with her husband.[73] TheKhutba duringFriday prayers was proclaimed in her husband's and her name. No other Arab woman had this honor since the advent ofIslam.[73]
Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way toMecca in 1084. His sonAhmad al-Mukarram led an army toZabid and killed 8,000 of its inhabitants.[74] He later installed theZurayids to governAden.Ahmad al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wifeArwa al-Sulayhi.[75]Queen Arwa moved the seat of theSulayhid dynasty fromSana'a toJibla, a small town in central Yemen nearIbb. Jibla was strategically near theSulayhid dynasty source of wealth, the agricultural central highlands. It was also within easy reach of the southern portion of the country, especiallyAden. She sentIsmaili missionaries toIndia where a significant Ismaili community was formed that exists to this day.[76] Queen Arwa continued to rule securely until her death in 1138.[76]
Arwa al-Sulayhi is still remembered as a great and much loved sovereign, as attested in Yemeni historiography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to as Balqis al-sughra, that is "the junior queen of Sheba".[77] Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili, they never tried to impose their beliefs on the public.[78] Shortly after queen Arwa's death, the country was split between five competing petty dynasties along religious lines.[79] TheAyyubid dynasty overthrew theFatimid caliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise to power,Saladin dispatched his brotherTuran Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174.[80]
Al-Abbas & al-Mas'ūd sons of Karam Al-Yami from the Hamdan tribe started ruling Aden for the Sulayhids, when Al-Abbas died in 1083. His son Zuray, who gave the dynasty its name, proceeded to rule together with his uncle al-Mas'ūd. They took part in the Sulayhid leader al-Mufaddal's campaign against theNajahid capitalZabid and were both killed during the siege (1110).[81] Their respective sons ceased to pay tribute to the Sulayhid queenArwa al-Sulayhi.[82] They were worsted by a Sulayhid expedition but queen Arwa agreed to reduce the tribute by half, to 50,000 dinars per year. The Zurayids again failed to pay and were once again forced to yield to the might of the Sulayhids, but this time the annual tribute from the incomes of Aden was reduced to 25,000. Later on they ceased to pay even that since Sulayhid power was on the wane.[83] After 1110 the Zurayids thus led a more than 60 years long independent rule in the city, bolstered by the international trade. The chronicles mention luxury goods such as textiles, perfume and porcelain, coming from places likeNorth Africa,Egypt,Iraq,Oman,Kirman, andChina. After the demise of queen Arwa al-Sulayhi in 1138, theFatimids inCairo kept a representation in Aden, adding further prestige to the Zurayids.[84] The Zurayids were sacked by the Ayyubids in 1174.
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Turan Shah conqueredZabid from theMahdids in May 1174, then marched towardAden in June and captured it from theZurayids.[85] TheHamdanid sultans ofSana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175 and it was not until 1189 that the Ayyubids managed to definitely secureSana'a.[86] The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen where they succeeded in eliminating the mini-states of that region, while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in a number of fortresses.[86] The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen.[87] In 1191, Zaydis ofShibam Kawkaban rebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid soldiers.[88] ImamAbdullah bin Hamza proclaimed the imamate in 1197 and foughtal-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam Abdullah was defeated at first but was able to conquerSana'a andDhamar in 1198[89]al-Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202[90]Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until his death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidi community was split between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed and a truce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.[91] The Ayyubid army was defeated inDhamar in 1226.[91] Ayyubid SultanMas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228 never to return.[92] Other sources suggest that he was forced to leave forEgypt instead in 1223.[93]
TheRasulid Dynasty was established in 1229 byUmar ibn Rasul. Umar ibn Rasul was appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in 1223. When the last Ayyubid ruler left Yemen in 1229, Umar stayed in the country as caretaker. He subsequently declared himself an independent king by assuming the title al-Malik Al-Mansur (the king assisted byAllah).[93] Umar established the Rasulid dynasty on a firm foundation and expanded its territory to include the area fromDhofar toMecca[94] Umar first established himself atZabid, then moved into the mountainous interior, taking the important highland centreSana'a. However, the Rasulid capitals were Zabid and Ta'izz. He was assassinated by his nephew in 1249.[92] Omar's son Yousef defeated the faction led by his father assassins and crushed several counter-attacks by the Zaydi imams who still held on in the northern highland. It was mainly because of the victories which he scored over his rivals that he assumed the honorific title al-Muzaffar (the victorious).[95] After thefall of Baghdad to theMongols in 1258,al-Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated the title ofcaliph.[95] He chose the city ofTa'izz to become the political capital of the kingdom because of its strategic location and proximity toAden.[96] Al-Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296 having reigned for 47 years.[95] When the news of his death reached the Zaydi imamAl-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya he commented by saying:[95]
The greatest king of Yemen, theMuawiyah of the time, has died. His pens used to break our lances and swords to pieces.
The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's commercial links withIndia and the Far East.[97] They profited greatly by theRed Sea transit trade viaAden andZabid.[92] The economy also boomed due to the agricultural development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive cultivation of palms.[92] It was during this period that coffee became a lucrative cash crop in Yemen.[98] The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the population ofTihama and southern Yemen while they had to buy the loyalty of Yemen's restive northern highland tribes.[92] The Rasulid sultans built numerousMadrasas in order to solidify theShafi'i school of thought which is still the dominant school ofjurisprudence amongst Yemenis today.[99] Under their rule,Ta'izz andZabid became major international centers of Islamic learning.[92] The Kings themselves were learned men in their own right who not only had important libraries but who also wrote treatises on a wide array of subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy.[96]
The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the fall of the pre-IslamicHimyarite Kingdom.[100] Though the Rasulids were ofTurkic descent[101] they claimed an ancient Yemenite origin to justify their rule. The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious genealogy for political purposes, nor were they doing anything out of the ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia.[102] By claiming descent from a solid Yemenite tribe, the Rasulid brought Yemen to a vital sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional milieu.[102] They had a difficult relationship with theMamluks of Egypt because the latter considered them a vassal state.[96] Their competition centered over theHejaz and the right to providekiswa of theKa'aba inMecca.[96] The dynasty became increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over the problem of succession, combined by periodic tribal revolts, as they were locked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.[92] During the last twelve years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between several contenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulids provided an opportunity for theBanu Taher clan to take over and establish themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454.[99]
TheTahirids were a local clan based inRada'a. While they were not as impressive as their predecessors, they were still keen builders. They built schools, mosques and irrigation channels as well as water cisterns and bridges inZabid andAden,Rada'a, andJuban. Their best-known monument is theAmiriya Madrasa inRada' which was built in 1504. The Tahiride were too weak either to contain theZaydi Imams or to defend themselves against foreign attacks. TheMamluks of Egypt tried to attach Yemen toEgypt and the Portuguese, led byAfonso de Albuquerque, occupiedSocotra and launched an unsuccessful four-daysiege of Aden in 1513.[103][104] The Portuguese posed an immediate threat to the Indian Ocean trade; theMamluks of Egypt therefore sent an army under the command ofHussein Al-Kurdi to fight the intruders.[105] The Mamluk sultan of Egypt sailed toZabid in 1515 and began diplomatic talks withTahiride Sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed forjihad against the Portuguese. Instead of confronting the Portuguese, theMamluks, who were running out of food and water, landed their fleet on the Yemen coastline and started to harassTihama villagers for what they needed.[106] Realizing how rich theTahiride realm was, they decided to conquer it.[106] The Mamluk army with the support of forces loyal toZaydi ImamAl-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din conquered the entire realm of theTahiride but failed to captureAden in 1517. The Mamluk victory turned out to be short-lived. TheOttoman Empire conqueredEgypt, hanging the last Mamluk Sultan inCairo.[106] It was not until 1538 that theOttomans decided to conquer Yemen. TheZaydi Highland tribes emerged as national heroes[107] by offering a stiff, vigorous resistance to theTurkish occupation.[108]
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities ofMecca andMedina and the trade route with India in spices and textiles, both of which were threatened and the latter virtually eclipsed by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and theRed Sea in the early part of the 16th century.[109]Hadım Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor ofEgypt, was ordered to command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant anarchy and discord as Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by saying:[110]
Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It would be not only possible but easy to capture, and should it be captured, it would be master of the lands ofIndia and send every year a great amount of gold and jewels toConstantinople.
Imamal-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled over the northern highlands includingSana'a whileAden was held by the lastTahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormedAden in 1538, killing its ruler and extended Ottoman's authority to includeZabid in 1539 and eventuallyTihama in its entirety.[111]Zabid became the administrative headquarters ofYemen Eyalet.[112] The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands; they held sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly aroundZabid,Mocha andAden.[113] Out of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen fromEgypt between 1539 – 1547, only 7,000 survived.[114] The Ottoman accountant-general inEgypt remarks:[114]
We have seen no foundry like Yemen for our soldiers. Each time we have sent an expeditionary force there, it has melted away like salt dissolved in water.
The Ottoman sent yet another expeditionary force toZabid in 1547 while Imamal-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din was ruling the highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other sonal-Mutahhar ibn Yahya.[115]Al-Mutahhar was lame and therefore not qualified for the Imamate.[115] He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor inZabid, to attack his father.[116] Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imamal-Mutahhar stormedTa'izz and marched north towardSana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imamal-Mutahhar aSanjak-bey with authority over'Amran. Imamal-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recapturedSana'a but the Ottomans led byÖzdemir Pasha, forcedal-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress inThula.Özdemir Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. He garrisoned the main cities, built new fortresses and rendered secure the main routes.[117] Özdemir died inSana'a in 1561 to be succeeded byMahmud Pasha.
Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman officials as corrupt and unscrupulous governor, he used his authority to take over a number of castles some of which belonged to the formerRasulid Kings.[115]Mahmud Pasha killed aSunni scholar fromIbb.[118] The Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by theZaydi Shia community in the northern highlands.[118] Disregarding the delicate balance of power in Yemen by acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within Yemeni society, causing them to forget their rivalries and unite against the Turks.[117]Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was split into two provinces: the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha andTihama under Murad Pasha. Imamal-Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed contact with prophet Muhammad in a dream advising him to wagejihad against the Ottomans.[119]Al-Mutahhar led the tribes to captureSana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieveSana'a, highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of them.[120] Over 80 battles were fought, the last decisive encounter took place inDhamar around 1568 in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and had his head sent toal-Mutahhar inSana'a.[120][121] By 1568, onlyZabid remained under the possession of the Turks.[121]
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman governor ofSyria, was ordered bySelim II to suppress the Yemeni rebels,[122] the Turkish army inEgypt was reluctant to go to Yemen however.[122]Mustafa Pasha sent a letter with two Turkishshawishes hoping to persuadeal-Mutahhar to give an apology and say that he did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman army, and claim that the ignorant Arabians according to the Turks, acted on their own.[123] Imamal-Mutahhar refused the Ottoman offer.Mustafa Pasha sent an expeditionary force under the command of Uthman Pasha, the expeditionary force was defeated with great casualties.[124] SultanSelim II was infuriated byMustafa's hesitation to go Yemen, he executed a number ofsanjak-beys in Egypt and orderedSinan Pasha to lead the entire Turkish army inEgypt to reconquer Yemen.[125]Sinan Pasha was a prominent Ottoman General ofAlbanian origin.[121] In 1570, he reconqueredAden,Ta'izz, andIbb, and he besiegedShibam Kawkaban for 7 months until a truce was reached.[126] Imamal-Mutahhar was pushed back but could not be entirely overcome.[127] Afteral-Mutahhar's demise in 1572, the Zaydi community was not united under an imam; the Turks took advantage of their disparity and conqueredSana'a,Sa'dah andNajran in 1583.[128] Imamal-Nasir Hassan was arrested in 1585 and exiled toConstantinople, thereby putting an end to the Yemeni rebellion.[121]
TheZaydi tribesmen in the northern highlands, particularly those ofHashid andBakil, were a constant irritant to Turkish rule inArabia.[129] Justifying their presence in Yemen as a triumph for Islam, the Ottomans accused theZaydis of beinginfidels.[130] Hassan Pasha was appointed governor ofYemen, which enjoyed a period of relative peace from 1585 to 1597. Pupils ofal-Mansur al-Qasim suggested that he claim the immamate and fight the Turks. He declined at first but was infuriated by the promotion of theHanafi school ofjurisprudence at the expense ofZaydi Islam. He proclaimed the Imamate in September 1597, which was the same year the Ottoman authorities inauguratedal-Bakiriyya Mosque.[128] By 1608, Imamal-Mansur (the victorious) regained control over the highlands and signed a 10-year truce with the Ottomans.[131] When Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died in 1620 his sonAl-Mu'ayyad Muhammad succeeded him and confirmed the truce with the Ottomans. In 1627, the Ottomans lostAden andLahej. 'Abdin Pasha was ordered to suppress the rebels but failed and had to retreat toMocha.[128] AfterAl-Mu'ayyad Muhammad expelled the Ottomans fromSana'a in 1628, onlyZabid andMocha remained under Ottoman possession.Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad capturedZabid in 1634 and allowed the Ottomans to leaveMocha peacefully.[132] The reasons behindAl-Mu'ayyad Muhammad's success were the tribes' possession of firearms and the fact that they were unified behind him.[133]
In 1632,Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1000 men to conquerMecca.[134] The army entered the city in triumph and killed its governor.[134] The Ottomans were not ready to loseMecca after Yemen, so they sent an army fromEgypt to fight the Yemenites.[134] Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreated to a valley outsideMecca.[135] Ottoman troops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water. This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties, most from thirst.[135] The tribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen.[136]Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad died in 1644. He was succeeded byAl-Mutawakkil Isma'il, another son ofal-Mansur al-Qasim, who conquered Yemen in its entirety, fromAsir in the north toDhofar in the east.[137][138][139][140] During his reign and that of his successor,Al-Mahdi Ahmad (1676–1681), the Imamate implemented some of the harshest discriminatory laws (Ar.ghiyar) against the Jews of Yemen, which culminated in theexpulsion of all Jews to a hot and arid region in theTihama coastal plain. TheQasimid state was the strongestZaydi state to ever exist.
During that period, Yemen was the sole Coffee producer in the world.[141] The country established diplomatic relations with theSafavid dynasty ofPersia, the Ottomans ofHejaz, theMughal Empire in India and Ethiopia. The emperorFasilides of Ethiopia sent three diplomatic missions to Yemen, but relations did not develop into a political alliance asFasilides had hoped, due to the rise of powerful feudalists in the country.[142] In the first half of the 18th century, the Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling out coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies, East Africa, the West Indies and Latin America.[143] The imammate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century.[144] In 1728 or 1731 the chief representative ofLahej declared himself an independentSultan in defiance of the Qasimid Dynasty and conqueredAden thus establishing theSultanate of Lahej. The rising power of the fervently IslamistWahhabi movement on the Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi state its coastal possessions after 1803. The imam was able to regain them temporarily in 1818, but new intervention by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833 again wrested the coast from the ruler in Sana'a. After 1835 the imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams were assassinated. After 1849 the Zaidi polity descended into chaos that lasted for decades.[145]
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The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route toIndia. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip fromSuez toBombay.East India Company officials decided on Aden. London tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam ofSana'a permitting them a foothold inMocha; and when unable to secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement from theSultan of Lahej, enabling them to consolidate a position inAden.[146][147]
An incident played into British hands when, while passingAden for trading purposes, one of their sailing ships sank and Arab tribesmen boarded it and plundered its contents. TheBritish India government dispatched a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to demand compensation.[147] Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler ofLahej, who was in Aden at the time, ordered his guards to defend the port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval power. The British managed to occupyAden and agreed to compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6000riyals.[147] The British evicted theSultan of Lahej fromAden and forced him to accept their "protection".[147] In November 1839, 5000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British realized that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations with the neighboring tribes, which required that they rest on a firm and satisfactory basis.[148]
The British government concluded "protection and friendship" treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would remain independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they do not conclude treaties with foreigners (non-Arab colonial powers).[149]Aden was declared afree zone in 1850. With emigrants fromIndia, East Africa and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a "world city". In 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city.[150] The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole ofArabia, including Yemen as successor ofMuhammad and the chief of the universalCaliphate.[151]
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion fromIndia to theRed Sea andArabia. They returned to theTihama in 1849 after an absence of two centuries.[152] Rivalries and disturbances continued among theZaydi imams, between them and their deputies, with theulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to other sects. Some citizens ofSana'a were desperate to return law and order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha inTihama to pacify the country.[153] Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans would improve their trade, for the Ottomans would become their customers.[154] An Ottoman expedition force tried to captureSana'a but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands.[155] The opening of theSuez Canal in 1869 strengthened the Ottomans' decision to remain in Yemen.[156] In 1872, military forces were dispatched fromConstantinople and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands (Tihama) to conquerSana'a. By 1873 the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands.Sana'a became the administrative capital ofYemen Vilayet.
The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society;Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.[157] The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. On the other hand, corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This stemmed from the fact that only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.[158] The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for temporary duration.[152] The so-calledTanzimat reforms were considered heretic by theZaydi tribes. In 1876, theHashid andBakil tribes rebelled against the Ottomans, and the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.[159]
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed the Ottoman efforts to pacify the land.Ahmed Izzet Pasha proposed that the Ottoman army should evacuate the highlands and confined itself toTihama and not to be unnecessarily burdened with continuing military operation against theZaydi tribes.[158] The hit-and-run tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman military. They resented the TurkishTanzimat and defied all attempts to impose a central government upon them.[156] The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in 1890.
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ImamYahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904, the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.[160] The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as much as 10,000 soldiers and£500,000 per year.[161] The Ottomans signed a treaty with imamYahya Hamidaddin in 1911. Under the treaty, imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of theZaydi northern highlands. The Ottomans continued to ruleShafi'i areas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.
ImamYahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the northern highlands independently since 1911. After the Ottoman departure in 1918 he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid ancestors. He dreamed ofGreater Yemen stretching fromAsir toDhofar. These schemes brought him into conflict with the de facto rulers in the territories claimed, namely theIdrisids,Ibn Saud and the British government inAden.[162] The Zaydi imam did not recognize the Anglo-Ottoman border agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it was made between two foreign powers occupying Yemen.[163] The border treaty effectively divided Yemen into "north" and "south".[164] In 1915 the British signed a treaty with the Idrisids guaranteeing their security and independence if they would fight against the Turks.[165] In 1919, Imam Yahya moved southward to liberate the nine British protectorates. The British responded by moving quickly towardsTihama and occupyingAl Hudaydah. Then they handed it over to their Idrisi allies.[166] Imam Yahya attacked the southern protectorates again in 1922. The British bombed Yahya's tribal forces using aircraft to which the tribes had no effective counter.[167]
In 1925, Imam Yahya captured Al Hudaydah from the Idrisids.[168] He continued to follow and attack the Idrisids untilAsir fell under the control of the Imam's forces, forcing the Idrisids to request an agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name of the Imam.[168] Imam Yahya refused the offer on the grounds that the Idrisis were of a Moroccan descent. According to Imam Yahya, the Idrisids, along with the British, were nothing but recent intruders and ought to be driven out of Yemen permanently.[169] In 1927, when Imam Yahya's forces were 50 km away from Aden,Ta'izz andIbb were bombed by the British for five days, and the Imam had to pull back.[167] SmallBedouin forces mainly from theMadh'hij confederation ofMarib, attackedShabwah but were bombed by the British and had to retreat.
TheItalian Empire was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as theKing of Yemen in 1926. Furthermore, the Italians in 1926 and 1927 aimed at taking control of theFarasan Islands.[170] Italy had colonies of its own in the region:Eritrea andSomaliland, both of low profitability. There was expectation that increased ties with Yemen would fuel increased trade with the colonies and bring the region into the Italiansphere of influence. The Kingdom of Yemen at this point had its eye on annexing Aden and Imam Yahya also had aspirations for aGreater Yemen, with the possible help from Italy.
This created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it as clear recognition of Imam Yahya's claim to sovereignty overGreater Yemen which included theAden protectorate and Asir.[171]
The Idrisids turned toIbn Saud seeking his protection from Yahya. In 1932, however, the Idrisids broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya seeking help against Ibn Saud himself, who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi domain.[172][173] Imam Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi dominion.[172] That same year, a group ofHejazi liberals fled to Yemen and plotted to expel Ibn Saud from the former HashemiteKingdom of Hejaz which wasconquered by the Saudis seven years earlier. Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid.[174] The British government sent arms and airplanes.[174] The British were anxious that Ibn Saud's financial difficulties may encourage theItalian Empire to bail him out.[172] Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri rebellion in 1933, after which the Idrisids fled toSana'a.[174] Negotiations between the Imam Yahya and Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After a military confrontation, Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.[174] Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces ofNajran, Asir andJazan for 20 years[175] and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934. The Imam recognized the British sovereignty overAden protectorate for 40 years.[176] Yahya submitted to the Saudi and British demands out of fear for Al Hudaydah. According to Bernard Reich, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs atGeorge Washington University, Yahya could have done better by reorganizing theZaidi tribes of the northern highlands as his ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and turn the lands they captured into another graveyard.[177]
Although the imamate lost Asir, it was able to put down rebel tribes in the north using Iraq-trained Yemeni troops. With the country, now established within clearly defined territory, finally pacified, the urban nationalists began to assert themselves. These nationalists had long practiced non-Zaidi traditions (especiallyShafi'i), and were centered in the coastal province of Tahama, the city ofTa'izz and the British-occupiedAden. Many had been students in Cairo and had acquired connections with theMuslim Brotherhood and Algerian nationalists. Muslim Brotherhood operatives in Yemen aligned themselves with the urban opposition and supported Zaidi prince Abdullah bin Ahmad al-Wazir, who joined those actively seeking to overthrow Imam Yahya. On February 17, 1948, the opposition revolted in Sana'a and killed Imam Yahya. Crown princeAhmad was able to rally northern tribes and retake the capital, quelling the revolt after a brief siege on March 12, 1948.[178]
Imam Ahmad reversed the isolationist policies of his father and opened Yemen's economy and society to the outside world. It went as the theocratic and largely medieval Imamate which became the first Arab state to accept Soviet aid. Beginning in 1955 Yemen entered into various treaties of friendship and from 1957 began receiving large amounts of Soviet arms as well as Soviet and Chinese military advisers. When the imam went abroad owing to illness, crown princeMuhammad al-Badr led a pro-Soviet party and communist activity increased. When the Imam returned in 1959, brutal repression ensued and communists were expelled.[179]
In April 1956 Yemen joined a defensive pact with Syria and Egypt, and in February 1958 it federated with theUnited Arab Republic. In parallel,clan violence erupted in Yemen and Aden, claiming hundreds of lives over 1956–60. The defensive pact move was conceived as a defensive measure against republican agitation, which urban nationalists still engaged in from British-occupied Aden. So long as Yemen was federated with the UAR, republicans would be deprived any assistance from Egyptian PresidentNasser. Although the federation lasted only for three years, crown prince al-Badr continued to portray himself as anArab patriot, often railing against "reactionary Arab monarchs."[180]
Arab nationalism influenced some circles that pushed for the modernization of the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became apparent when ImamAhmad bin Yahya died in 1962. He was succeeded by his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking theNorth Yemen Civil War.[181] The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and Jordan (mostly with weapons and financial aid, but also with small military forces), whilst the republicans were backed by Egypt. Egypt provided the republicans with weapons and financial assistance but also sent a large military force to participate in the fighting. Israel covertly supplied weapons to the royalists in order to keep the Egyptian military busy in Yemen and make Nasser less likely to initiate a conflict in Sinai.After six years of civil war, the republicans were victorious (February 1968) and formed theYemen Arab Republic.[182]
The revolution in the north coincided with theAden Emergency, which hastened the end of British rule in the south. On 30 November 1967, the state of South Yemen was formed, comprising Aden and the formerProtectorate of South Arabia. This socialist state was later officially known as thePeople's Democratic Republic of Yemen and a programme of nationalisation was begun.[183]
Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. The South was supported by the Eastern bloc. The North, however, was unable to get the same connections. In 1972, the two statesfought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by theArab League, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978,Ali Abdallah Saleh was named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic.[184]After the war, the North complained about the South's help from foreign countries, which included Saudi Arabia.[185] In 1979,fighting erupted between the North and the South. There were renewed efforts to unite the two states.[184]
In 1986, thousands died in the South, when acivil war erupted between supporters of former presidentAbdul Fattah Ismail and his successor,Ali Nasser Muhammad. Ali Nasser Muhammad fled the country and was later sentenced to death for treason.[184]
In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the joint governing of Yemen, and the countries were merged on 22 May 1990 with Saleh as president.[184] The President of South Yemen,Ali Salim al-Beidh, became vice-president.[184] A unifiedparliament was formed and a unity constitution was agreed upon.[184] In the1993 parliamentary election, the first held after unification, theGeneral People's Congress won 122 of 301 seats.[186]: 309
After theinvasion of Kuwait crisis in 1990, Yemen's president opposed military intervention from non-Arab states.[187] As a member of theUnited Nations Security Council for 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait[188] and voted against the "use of force resolution". The vote outraged the U.S.[189]Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for its opposition to the war.[190]
Following food riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition government made up of the ruling parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993. However, vice-president al-Beidh withdrew toAden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against hisYemeni Socialist Party, as well as the economic marginalization of the south.[191] Negotiations to end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994. The government of Prime MinisterHaydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas became ineffective due to political infighting[192]
An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed inAmman,Jordan on 20 February 1994, but this could not stop the civil war.[193][citation needed] During these tensions, both the northern and southern armies (which had never integrated) gathered on their respective frontiers.[194] The May – July1994 civil war in Yemen resulted in the defeat of the southern armed forces and the flight into exile of manyYemeni Socialist Party leaders and other southern secessionists.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war.[195]
Saleh became Yemen's first directly elected president inthe 1999 presidential election, winning 96.2% of the vote.[186]: 310 The only other candidate,Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son ofQahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi, a former President ofSouth Yemen. Though a member of Saleh'sGeneral People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb ran as an independent.[196]
In June 2000, theTreaty of Jeddah was signed, defining the border with Saudi Arabia.
In October 2000, seventeen U.S. personnel died after asuicide attack on the U.S. naval vesselUSS Cole in Aden which was subsequently blamed on al-Qaeda. After theSeptember 11 attacks on the United States, President Saleh assured U.S. PresidentGeorge W. Bush that Yemen was a partner in hisWar on Terror. In 2001, there was violence surroundinga referendum which apparently supported extending Saleh's rule and powers.
TheShia insurgency in Yemen began in June 2004 when dissident clericHussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi Shia sect, launched an uprising against the Yemeni government. The Yemeni government alleged that theHouthis were seeking to overthrow it and to implement Shī'areligious law. The rebels counter that they are "defending their community against discrimination" and government aggression.[197]
In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country between police and protesters over rising fuel prices.
In the2006 presidential election, held on 20 September, Saleh won with 77.2% of the vote. His main rival,Faisal bin Shamlan, received 21.8%.[198][199] Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27 September.[200]
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in theprovince of Marib in July 2007. There was a series of bomb attacks on police, official, diplomatic, foreign business and tourism targets in 2008. Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people, including six of the assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an opposition rally in Sana'a demanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire.
In January 2009, the Saudi and Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged to formAl-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula is based in Yemen, and many of its members were Saudi nationals who had been released from Guantanamo Bay.[201] Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour, but terrorist activities continued.[citation needed]
The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the Shia insurgents in 2009, assisted by Saudi forces. Tens of thousands of people were displaced by the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed upon in February 2010. However, by the end of the year, Yemen claimed that 3,000 soldiers had been killed in renewed fighting. The Shia rebels accused Saudi Arabia of providing support tosalafi groups to suppress Zaidism in Yemen.[202] Saleh's government used Al-Qaeda in its wars against the insurgentHouthis clan.[203]
Some news reports have suggested that, on orders from U.S. PresidentBarack Obama, U.S. warplanes firedcruise missiles at what officials in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces ofSana'a andAbyan on 17 December 2009.[204] Instead of hitting Al-Qaeda operatives, it hit a village killing 55 civilians.[205] Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60 civilians, 28 of them children. Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December.[206]
The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived growing terror threat due to political chaos in Yemen.[207] Since December 2009, U.S. strikes in Yemen have been carried out by the U.S. military with intelligence support from CIA.[208] The drone strikes are protested by human-rights groups who say they kill innocent civilians and that the U.S. military and CIA drone strikes lack sufficient congressional oversight, including the choice of human targets suspected of being threats to America.[209] Controversy over U.S. policy for drone attacks mushroomed after a September 2011 drone strike in Yemen killed Anwar al-Awlaki andSamir Khan, both U.S. citizens.[210] Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's teenage son,Abdulrahman al-Awlaki.
In 2010 the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people whose names are not known. The U.S. government increased military aid to $140 million in 2010.[211] U.S. drone strikes continued after the ousting of President Saleh.[212]
TheYemeni Crisis began with the2011–12 revolution against PresidentAli Abdullah Saleh, who had ledYemen for more than two decades.[213][214] After Saleh left office in early 2012 as part of a mediated agreement between theYemeni government and opposition groups, the government led by Saleh's former vice president,Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, struggled to unite the fractious political landscape of the country and fend off threats both fromAl Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula andHouthi militants that had been waging a protractedinsurgency in the north for years.[215][216] In 2014, Houthi fightersswept into the capital of Sana'a and forced Hadi to negotiate a "unity government" with other political factions. The rebels continued to apply pressure on the weakened government until, after his presidential palace and private residence came under attack from the militant group, Hadi resigned along with his ministers in January 2015. The following month, the Houthisdeclared themselves in control of the government, dissolvingParliament and installing an interimRevolutionary Committee led byMohammed Ali al-Houthi, a cousin of Houthi leaderAbdul-Malik al-Houthi.[217][218] However, Hadi escaped toAden, where he declared he remains Yemen's legitimate president, proclaimed the country's temporary capital, and called on loyal government officials and members of the military to rally to him.[219][220]
The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed otherArab Spring mass protests in early 2011. The uprising was initially against unemployment, economic conditions, and corruption, as well as against the government's proposals to modify theconstitution of Yemen so that Saleh's son could inherit the presidency.
In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on the pro-democracy camp in Sana'a, killing more than 50 people. In May, dozens were killed in clashes between troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a. By this point, Saleh began to lose international support. In October 2011, Yemeni human rights activistTawakul Karman won theNobel Peace Prize and theUN Security Council condemned the violence and called for a transfer of power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh, in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign theGulf Co-operation Council plan for political transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon signing the document, he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy, Vice PresidentAbd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi.
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested presidential elections in February 2012, in which he was the only candidate standing.[221] A unity government – including a prime minister from the opposition – was formed. Al-Hadi would oversee the drafting of a new constitution, followed by parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014.[needs update]
Saleh returned in February 2012. In the face of objections from thousands of street protesters, parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution. Saleh's son, GeneralAhmed Ali Abdullah Saleh continues to exercise a strong hold on sections of the military and security forces.
AQAP claimed responsibility for the February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace which killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind the suicide bombing which killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later. In September 2012, a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a local al-Qaeda leaderSaid al-Shihri was reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there has been a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops" – in addition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S. military presence – in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens.[222] Many analysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the country.[223] Following the election of new presidentAbd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the Yemeni military was able to pushAnsar al-Sharia back and recapture theShabwah Governorate.
In 2014, theHouthi movement, which had been waging aninsurgency against the Yemeni government since 2004, began agradual takeover of Yemen, defeating government forces in theBattle of Amran and theBattle of Sana'a (2014). Their advance continued throughout Yemen, prompting the start of theSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. The Houthis attacked Aden on 25 March 2015, beginning theBattle of Aden (2015). Despite Saudi airstrikes, the Houthis managed to take advance into the Tawahi, Khormaksar, and Crater districts. The tide turned on 14 July, when an anti-Houthi counteroffensive managed to trap the Houthis on the peninsula. By 6 August 2015, the Hadi government had captured 75% of Taiz, and theLahij insurgency had expelled Houthis from theLahij Governorate. Hadi fortunes dissipated on 16 August, when Houthi forces successfully counterattacked and forced the Hadi forces to retreat from Al-Salih Gardens and the Al-Dabab Mountain region. Hadi forces attributed this reverse to a lack of military equipment.[224] In Hadramaut,Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) managed to take over Mukalla after winning theBattle of Mukalla (2015), and in December 2015 theytook over Zinjibar and Jaar.
2016 saw the Hadi government defeat Houthi forces in theBattle of Port Midi, and retake Mukalla from AQAP in theBattle of Mukalla (2016). In January 2017, theUnited States carried out theRaid on Yakla, in a failed attempt to obtain new intelligence regarding AQAP.[225] In December, the Hadi Government began theAl Hudaydah offensive. In June 2018, the Hadi Government began an attack on the city of Hudaydah itself, starting theBattle of Al Hudaydah, which is considered the largest battle in the war since the start of the Saudi intervention.[226]
In December 2017, former president and strongman Ali Abdullah Saleh was killed. He had been an ally of the Houthis since 2014 until just before his death.[227]
The war in Yemen also resulted in cholera and famine. (SeeFamine in Yemen (2016–present) and2016–18 Yemen cholera outbreak)
After losing the support of the Saudi-led coalition, Yemen's President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi resigned and Presidential Leadership Council took power in April 2022.[228]
Even more dramatic was the conversion of Abu-Kariba's grandson, Zar'a, who reigned from C.E. 518 to 525. Legend ascribes his conversion to his having witnessed a rabbi extinguish a fire worshipped by some Arab magi, merely by reading a passage from the Torah over it. 12 After changing his religion, he assumed the name Yusef Ash'ar, but gained notoriety in history by his cognomen Dhu Nuwas ("Lord of the Curls," possibly because he wore his peot long). For some years Dhu Nuwas was successful in staving off Ethiopian incursions and preserving Jewish Himyar's independence. Informed by some Jewish advisors in Tiberias of atrocities perpetrated against Jews in Roman lands, the overzealous proselyte decided on a course of revenge: He executed some Byzantine Christian merchants who were traveling through Himyar on their way to Ethio-pia. This outrage led to a rebellion among his Christian subjects in the city of Nejiran, which Dhu Nuwas suppressed with great cruelty. He is said to have cast twenty thousand Christians into pits filled with flaming oil. " The massacre and forced conversions of thousands of Christians at Nejiran infuriated Constantine, the Byzantine emperor. As he was occupied in a war with Persia, Constantine sent ambassadors to his Ethiopian Christian ally, King Caleb, entreating him to intervene on behalf of their Arabian coreligionists. With a formidable force of sixty thousand men (some say one hundred twenty thousand), Caleb crossed the Red Sea and attacked the Jewish king. In a fierce battle in 525 c.E. the invaders won a decisive victory. His queen captured and his capital laid waste, Dhu Nuwas chose to escape what was sure to be a cruel death by riding horseback off a cliff into the sea.
He turned the church in his capital (Ẓafār) into a synagogue, and killed all the priests and other leading Christians, especially the Abyssinians who had been in control of the church. Then he moved on to Nejran, with the intention of subduing that city, where Christianity was stronger than in any other centre of south Arabia.
Ry 508, le plus ancien des deux textes, termine ici, en mars~avril, le récit de la campagne par le bilan provisoire des opérations effectuées jusque là: 13.000 tués, 9.500 prisonniers, 280.000 têtes de bétail (Ry 508, 4 - 6). [...] Le texte termine là, à la date du mois de ḏū-Maḏraʾān (entre juillet et septembre) le récit des opérations effectuées, en mettant à jour le bilan global de la campagne (Ry 507, 8 ~ 9): on y relève 1.000 tués, 1.500 prisonniers et 10.000 têtes de bétail de plus que dans le bilan clôturé à la date de Ry 508.
in 976–77 AD[...] the then ruler of Yemen received slaves, as well as amber and leopard skins from the chief of the Dahlak islands (off the coast from Massawa).
1978 – Ali Abdallah Saleh named as president of YAR.
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