Thehistory of Turkey, understood as the history of the area now forming the territory of theRepublic of Turkey, includes the history of bothAnatolia (the Asian part of Turkey) andEastern Thrace (the European part of Turkey). These two previously politically distinct regions came under control of theRoman Empire in the second century BC, eventually becoming the core of the RomanByzantine Empire. For times predating the Ottoman period, a distinction should also be made between the history of theTurkic peoples, and the history of the territories now forming the Republic of Turkey[1][2] From the time when parts of what is now Turkey were conquered by theSeljuq dynasty, the history of Turkey spans the medieval history of theSeljuk Empire, the medieval to modern history of theOttoman Empire, and thehistory of the Republic of Turkey since the 1920s.[1][2]
Hattian rulers were gradually replaced byHittite rulers.[12] The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital ofHattusa.[12] It co-existed in Anatolia withPalaians andLuwians, approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.[12] As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.[20] TheThracians were also present in modern-dayTurkish Thrace.[21] It is not known if theTrojan War is based on historical events.[22]Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most withIliad's story.[23]
Around 750 BC,Phrygia had been established, with its two centers inGordium and modern-dayKayseri.[24]Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, but it was closer toGreek, rather than Anatolian languages.[15] Phrygians shared Anatolia withNeo-Hittites andUrartu. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.[25] Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was aroundLake Van.[26][24] Urartu was often in conflict withAssyria,[27] but fell with the attacks ofMedes andScythians in seventh century BC.[24] WhenCimmerians attacked, Phrygia fell around 650 BC.[28] They were replaced byCarians,Lycians andLydians.[28] These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".[28]
After the fall of the Hittites, the new states of Phrygia and Lydia stood strong on the western coast asGreek civilization began to flourish. They, and all the rest of Anatolia were relatively soon after incorporated into theAchaemenid Persian Empire.
As Persia grew in strength, their system of local government in Anatolia allowed many port cities to grow and to become wealthy. All of Anatolia got divided into varioussatrapies, ruled bysatraps (governors) appointed by the central Persian rulers. The first state that was calledArmenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of theArmenianOrontid dynasty, which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC, which became theSatrapy of Armenia under Achaemenid rule. Some of the satraps revolted periodically but did not pose a serious threat. In the 5th century BC,Darius I built theRoyal Road, which linked the principal city ofSusa with the west Anatolian city ofSardis.[29]
Anatolia played a pivotal role in Achaemenid history. In the earliest 5th century BC, some of the Ionian cities under Persian rule revolted, which culminated into theIonian Revolt. This revolt, after being easily suppressed by the Persian authority, laid the direct uplead for theGreco-Persian Wars, which turned out to be one of the most crucial wars in European history.
Regions of Roman Anatolia
Achaemenid Persian rule in Anatolia ended with the conquests ofAlexander the Great, defeatingDarius III between 334 and 330 BC. Alexander wrested control of the whole region from Persia in successive battles. After Alexander's death, his conquests were split amongst several of his trusted generals, but were under constant threat of invasion from both theGauls and other powerful rulers inPergamon,Pontus, andEgypt. TheSeleucid Empire, the largest of Alexander's territories, and which included Anatolia, became involved in a disastrous war withRome culminating in the battles ofThermopylae andMagnesia. The resultingTreaty of Apamea in (188 BC) saw the Seleucids retreat from Anatolia. TheKingdom of Pergamum and theRepublic of Rhodes, Rome's allies in the war, were granted the former Seleucid lands in Anatolia.
Roman control of Anatolia was strengthened by a 'hands off' approach by Rome, allowing local control to govern effectively and providing military protection. In the early 4th century,Constantine the Great established a new administrative centre atConstantinople, and by the end of the 4th century the Roman empire split into two parts, the Eastern part (Romania) with Constantinople as its capital, referred to by historians as the Byzantine Empire from the original name,Byzantium.[30]
By the 5th century BC, the Thracian presence was pervasive enough to have madeHerodotus[35] call them the second-most numerous people in the part of the world known by him (after theIndians), and potentially the most powerful, if not for their lack of unity. The Thracians in classical times were broken up into a large number of groups and tribes, though a number of powerful Thracian states were organized, such as theOdrysian kingdom of Thrace and theDacian kingdom ofBurebista. A type of soldier of this period called thePeltast probably originated in Thrace.
Before the expansion of the Kingdom ofMacedon, Thrace was divided into three camps (East, Central, and West) after the withdrawal of the Persians following their eventual defeat in mainland Greece.Cersobleptes, a notable ruler of the East Thracians, attempted to expand his authority over many of the Thracian tribes but was eventually defeated by theMacedonians.
In 324,Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of theRoman Empire, renaming itNew Rome. Following the death ofTheodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, the city, which would popularly come to be known asConstantinople became the capital of theEastern Roman Empire. This, which would later be branded by historians as theByzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of what is today Turkey until theLate Middle Ages,[48] while the other remaining territory remained inSassanid Persian hands.
Between the 3rd and 7th century AD, the Byzantines and the neighboring Sassanidsfrequently clashed over possession of Anatolia, which significantly exhausted both empires, thus laying the way open for the eventual Muslim conquests from both empires' respective south.
The borders of the empire fluctuated through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign ofJustinian I (r. 527–565), the empire reached its greatest extent after the fall of the west, re-conquering much of the historically Roman westernMediterranean coast, includingAfrica,Italy andRome, which it held for two more centuries. TheByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 exhausted the empire's resources, and during theearly Muslim conquests of the 7th century, it lost its richest provinces,Egypt andSyria, to theRashidun Caliphate. It then lost Africa to theUmayyads in 698, before the empire was rescued by theIsaurian dynasty.
The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Refugees fleeing the city after its capture would settle in Italy and other parts of Europe, helping to ignite theRenaissance. TheEmpire of Trebizond was conquered eight years later when its eponymous capital surrendered to Ottoman forces after it wasbesieged in 1461. The last Byzantinerump state, thePrincipality of Theodoro, was conquered by the Ottomans in 1475.
Historians generally agree that the first Turkic people lived in a region extending fromCentral Asia toSiberia. Historically they were established after the 6th century BC.[49] The earliest separate Turkic peoples appeared on the peripheries of the lateXiongnu confederation about 200 BC[49] (contemporaneous with the ChineseHan Dynasty).[50] The first mention of Turks was in aChinese text that mentioned trade of Turk tribes with theSogdians along theSilk Road.[51]
TheHun hordes ofAttila, who invaded and conquered much of Europe in the 5th century AD, may have been Turkic and descendants of the Xiongnu.[50][57][58] Some scholars argue that the Huns were one of the earlier Turkic tribes, while others argue that they were ofMongolic origin.[59]
In the 6th century, 400 years after thecollapse of northern Xiongnu power inInner Asia, leadership of the Turkic peoples was taken over by the Göktürks. Formerly in the Xiongnu nomadic confederation, the Göktürks inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From 552 to 745, Göktürk leadership united thenomadic Turkic tribes into theGöktürk Empire. The name derives fromgok, "blue" or "celestial". Unlike its Xiongnu predecessor, the Göktürk Khanate had its temporarykhans from theAshina clan that weresubordinate to asovereign authority controlled by a council of tribal chiefs. TheKhanate retained elements of its originalshamanistic religion,Tengriism, although it received missionaries ofBuddhist monks and practiced a syncretic religion. The Göktürks were the first Turkic people to writeOld Turkic in a runic script, theOrkhon script. The Khanate was also the first state known as "Turk". Towards the end of the century, the Göktürks Khanate was split in two; i.e.,Eastern Turkic Khaganate andWestern Turkic Khaganate. TheTang Empire conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. However, in 681 the khanate was revived. The Göktürks eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts, but the name "Turk" was later taken by many states and peoples.[citation needed]
Turkic peoples and related groups migrated west fromTurkestan and what is nowMongolia towardsEastern Europe,Iranian plateau and Anatolia and modern Turkey in many waves. The date of the initial expansion remains unknown. After many battles, they established their own state and later created theOttoman Empire. The main migration occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of Asia and into Europe and the Middle East.[60] They also participated in theCrusades.
TheSeljuq Turkmens created amedieval empire that controlled a vast area stretching from theHindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and fromCentral Asia to thePersian Gulf. From their homelands near theAral Sea, the Seljuqs advanced first intoKhorasan and then into mainlandPersia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.[61]
The Seljuq/Seljuk empire was founded byTughril Beg (1016–1063) in 1037. Tughril was raised by his grandfather,Seljuk-Beg Seljuk gave his name to both the Seljuk empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuqs united the fractured political scene of the easternIslamic world and played a key role in thefirst andsecond crusades. HighlyPersianized in culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the development of theTurko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia.[62] A dynasty from Seljuks, theSeljuks of Rum, became the ruling power in Anatolia. After Mongol invasion of Anatolia, Seljuks of Rum collapsed,[63] paving the way for theAnatolian Beyliks.
TheOttoman beylik's first capital was located inBursa in 1326. Edirne which was conquered in 1361[64] was the next capital city. After largely expanding to Europe and Anatolia, in 1453, the Ottomans nearly completed the conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople during the reign ofMehmed II. Constantinople was made the capital city of the Empire following Edirne. The Ottoman Empire would continue to expand into the Eastern Anatolia, Central Europe, the Caucasus, North and East Africa, the islands in the Mediterranean, Greater Syria, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian peninsula in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.
The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the beginning of Ottoman territorial retreat; some territories were lost by the treaty: Austria received all of Hungary and Transylvania except the Banat; Venice obtained most of Dalmatia along with the Morea (the Peloponnesus peninsula in southern Greece); Poland recovered Podolia.[67] Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire continued losing its territories, includingGreece,Algeria,Tunisia,Libya and theBalkans in the 1912–1913Balkan Wars. Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century. Its inhabitants were of varied ethnicities, includingTurks,Armenians,Assyrians,Kurds,Greeks,French, andItalians (particularly fromGenoa andVenice). Following the loss of its outer territories and the expulsion of Muslims from former Ottoman Europe,Ottomanist pluralist ideas fell out of favor, replaced by anti-Christian sentiment.[68] Following a coup led by theCommittee of Union and Progress, the Ottoman state pursued policies ofTurkification,[69] including arbitrary violence against Greeks and Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.[70]
Faced with territorial losses on all sides the Ottoman Empire under the rule of theThree Pashas forged an alliance with Germany who supported it with troops and equipment. The Ottoman Empire enteredWorld War I (1914–1918) on the side of theCentral Powers and was ultimately defeated.[71] The Ottomans successfully defended theDardanelles strait during theGallipoli campaign and achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of theMesopotamian campaign, such as theSiege of Kut; but theArab Revolt turned the tide against the Ottomans in the Middle East. In theCaucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had the upper hand from the beginning, especially after theBattle of Sarikamish. In the wake of this defeat, which War MinisterEnver Pasha blamed on Armenians siding with Russia, and with Ottoman military units already carrying out massacres against Armenian villages,[72] the CUP adopted a policy of eliminating Armenians[68] in what is now broadly recognized by scholars as theArmenian genocide.[73]
Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk following theRussian Revolution. Following World War I, the huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided intoseveral new states.[74]
Atatürk on the cover of theTime magazine, Vol. I No. 4, March 24, 1923. Title: "Mustapha Kemal Pasha"
The occupation of some parts of the country by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of theTurkish National Movement.[65] TheTurkish Provisional Government inAnkara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled:[75][76][77][78] The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of theArmistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. The handling of theChanak Crisis (September–October 1922) between theUnited Kingdom and the Ankara Government caused the collapse ofDavid Lloyd George'sMinistry on 19 October 1922[79] and political autonomy ofCanada from the UK.[80] On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formallyabolished thesultanate, thus ending 623 years ofmonarchical Ottoman rule.
TheTreaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,[81][82] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops fromIstanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.[83] TheLausanne Convention stipulated apopulation exchange between Greece and Turkey.[84]
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's firstpresident and introducedmany reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the oldreligion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkishnation state that would be governed as aparliamentary republic under asecular constitution.[85] Thefez was banned, full rights for women politically were established, and newalphabet forTurkish based upon theLatin script was created.[86] Among the other things, economic privileges for foreigners were abolished and their means of production and railways were nationalised. Foreign schools were placed under state control. Theabolition of thecaliphate followed on 3 March 1924. In the same year, Turkey abolishedsharia and in 1925, a clothing reform for men (theHat Law) was enacted.
In the following years, entire legal systems were adopted from European countries and adapted to Turkish conditions. In 1926, Swiss civil law—and thusmonogamy with the equality of men and women—was adopted first (gender equality was only partially achieved in everyday life, however), sopolygamy was banned. This was followed by German commercial law and Italian criminal law. The Islamicsectarian lodges in 1925 and theMasonic lodges[87][88][89] in 1935 were banned. The hightaxes imposed on farmers were reduced. In 1926, theArabic calendar was replaced by theGregorian calendar and themetric system was introduced. In 1927,co-education were introduced. The law on industrial incentives was passed (1927) and the first five-year plan for industry came into force (1934). Secularisation was proclaimed in 1928. Aneducational mobilisation was initiated to literate the rural population.
Turkey was neutral in World War II (1939–45) but signed a treaty with Britain in October 1939 that said Britain would defend Turkey if Germany attacked it. An invasion was threatened in 1941 but did not happen and Ankara refused German requests to allow troops to cross its borders into Syria or the USSR. Germany had been its largest trading partner before the war, and Turkey continued to do business with both sides. It purchased arms from both sides. The Allies tried to stop German purchases of chrome (used in making better steel). Starting in 1942 the Allies provided military aid. The Turkish leaders conferred with Roosevelt and Churchill at theCairo Conference in November, 1943, and promised to enter the war. By August 1944, with Germany nearing defeat, Turkey broke off relations. In February 1945, it declared war on Germany and Japan, a symbolic move that allowed Turkey to join the nascent United Nations.[92][93]
Meanwhile, relations with Moscow worsened, setting stage for the start of the Cold War. The demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in theTurkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare theTruman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resulted in large-scaleU.S. military and economic support.[94]
Theone-party period was followed bymulti-party democracy after 1945. The Turkish democracy was interrupted by militarycoups d'état in1960,1971 and1980.[96] In 1984, thePKK began an insurgency against the Turkish government; the conflict, which has claimed over 40,000 lives, continues today.[97] Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability.[98]
The 90s saw a coalition government ruled by the first and only female prime minister,Tansu Çiller, and economic problems coupled withdevaluation andinflation. In March 1995, twenty-three people were killed and hundreds were injured in the incidents calledGazi Massacre in Istanbul. The events began with an armed attack on several coffee shops in the neighborhood, where anAlevi religious leader was killed. Protests occurred both inGazi andÜmraniye district on the Asian side of İstanbul. Police responded with gunfire.[99]
In July 2016, the Turkishattempted coup took place. A number of rogue government units took over and were only repelled after a few hours.[102] In December 2016, an off duty policeman Mevlut Altintas shot dead the Russian Ambassador inside an Art Gallery. He refused to surrender and was then shot dead by special police.[103] In April 2017, the constitutional amendments, which significantly increased the powers of Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, were narrowly accepted in theconstitutional referendum.[104] In June 2018, President Erdoğan was re-elected for a new five-year term in the first round of thepresidential election. HisJustice and Development Party (AK Party) secured a majority in the separateparliamentary election.[105] In October 2018, Prince MBS of Saudi Arabia sent a group of government agents to murder prominent critic,Jamal Khashoggi, in the Saudi Arabian consulate in Istanbul.His death was just a few days before his sixtieth birthday.[106]
In July 2022, the Turkish government asked the international community to recognise Turkey by its Turkish name Türkiye, in part because of thehomonym,turkey (bird), for the name of the country in the English language.[107] On 6 February 2023,2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes took place, which resulted in massive casualities. In May 2023, President Erdoğan won a new re-election and his AK Party with its allies held parliamentary majority in thegeneral election.[108] As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainianrefugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.[109] In 2022, nearly 100 000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.[110] As of August 2023, the number ofrefugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey was estimated to be 3.307.882 people. The number of Syrians had decreased by 205 894 people since the beginning of the year.[111] In March 2024, the oppositionRepublican People's Party (CHP) gained a significicant victory inlocal election, including mayoral victories in Turkey's five largest cities: Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Bursa, and Antalya.[112]2025 Turkish protests began throughout Turkey on 19 March 2025 followingthe detention and arrest ofIstanbul mayor and the opposition's president candidateEkrem İmamoğlu and more than 100 other opposition members and protesters.
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^John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.L. Hammond.The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC. Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 612. "According to Strabo (vii.6.1cf.st.Byz.446.15) the Thracian -bria word meant polis but it is an inaccurate translation."
^Mogens Herman Hansen.An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation. Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 888. "It was meant to be a polis but this was no reason to think that it was anything other than a native settlement."
^Christopher Webber and Angus McBride.The Thracians 700 BC-AD 46 (Men-at-Arms). Osprey Publishing, 2001, p. 1. "They lived almost entirely in villages; the city of Seuthopolis seems to be the only significant town in Thrace not built by the Greeks (although the Thracians did build fortified refuges)."
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^Gerhard Bowering; Patricia Crone; Wadad Kadi; Devin J. Stewart; Muhammad Qasim Zaman; Mahan Mirza (2012).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 49.ISBN978-1-4008-3855-4. Retrieved14 August 2013.Following the revolution, Mustafa Kemal became an important figure in the military ranks of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a protégé ... Although the sultanate had already been abolished in November 1922, the republic was founded in October 1923. ... ambitious reform programme aimed at the creation of a modern, secular state and the construction of a new identity for its citizens.
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