| History of New York City |
|---|
 Manatus Map of the New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary in the 17th century |
| Lenape and New Netherland, to 1664 New Amsterdam British and Revolution, 1665–1783 Federal and early American, 1784–1854 Tammany and Consolidation, 1855–1897 (Civil War, 1861–1865) Early 20th century, 1898–1945 Post–World War II, 1946–1977 Modern and post-9/11, 1978–present |
| See also |
| Timelines:New York City • Manhattan • Bronx • Brooklyn • Queens • Staten Island Transportation Category |
| City of New York population by year[1][2][3] | |
|---|---|
| 1656 | 1,000 |
| 1690 | 6,000 |
| 1790 | 33,131 |
| 1800 | 60,515 |
| 1810 | 96,373 |
| 1820 | 123,706 |
| 1830 | 202,589 |
| 1840 | 312,710 |
| 1850 | 515,547 |
| 1860 | 813,669 |
| 1870 | 942,292 |
| 1880 | 1,206,299 |
| 1890 | 1,515,301 |
| 1900 | 3,437,202 |
| 1910 | 4,766,883 |
| 1920 | 5,620,048 |
| 1930 | 6,930,446 |
| 1940 | 7,454,995 |
| 1950 | 7,891,957 |
| 1960 | 7,781,984 |
| 1970 | 7,894,862 |
| 1980 | 7,071,639 |
| 1990 | 7,322,564 |
| 2000 | 8,008,278 |
| 2010 | 8,175,133 |
| 2020 | 8,804,190 |
| Including the "outer boroughs" before the 1898 consolidation | |
| 1790 | 49,000 |
| 1800 | 79,200 |
| 1830 | 242,300 |
| 1850 | 696,100 |
| 1880 | 1,912,000 |
The writtenhistory of New York City begins with the arrival of the first European explorer to the area, ItalianGiovanni da Verrazzano in 1528. European settlement began with the Dutch in 1608 andNew Amsterdam was founded in 1624.
The "Sons of Liberty" campaigned against British authority inNew York City, and theStamp Act Congress of representatives from throughout theThirteen Colonies met in the city in 1765 to organize resistance toCrown policies. The city's strategic location and status as a major seaport made it the prime target for British seizure in 1776. GeneralGeorge Washington lost a series of battles from which he narrowly escaped (with the notable exception of theBattle of Harlem Heights, his first victory of the war), and theBritish Army occupied New York and made it their base on the continent until late 1783, attractingLoyalist refugees.
The city served as the national capital under theArticles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789, and briefly served as the new nation's capital in 1789–90 under theUnited States Constitution. Under the new government, the city hosted the inauguration of George Washington as the firstPresident of the United States, the drafting of theUnited States Bill of Rights, and the firstSupreme Court of the United States. The opening of theErie CanalNew York and theGreat Lakes, along with coastal traffic to lowerNew England, making the city the preeminent port on theAtlantic Ocean. The arrival of rail connections to the north and west in the 1840s and 1850s strengthened its central role.
Beginning in the mid-19th century, waves of newimmigrants arrived from Europe, dramatically changing the composition of the city and serving as workers in the expanding industries. Modern New York traces its development to the consolidation of thefive boroughs in 1898 and an economic and building boom following theGreat Depression andWorld War II. Throughout its history, New York has served as a main port of entry for many immigrants, and its cultural and economic influence has made it one of the most important urban areas in theUnited States and the world. Theeconomy in the 1700s was based onfarming, local production,fur trading, and Atlantic jobs likeshipbuilding. In the 1700s, New York was sometimes referred to as abreadbasket colony, because one of its major crops was wheat. New York colony also exported other goods includingiron ore as araw material and manufactured goods such as tools, plows, nails and kitchen items such as kettles, pans and pots.[not verified in body]
Prior to the first human settlement, the area that eventually encompassed modern day New York was originally a marshland swamp, with numerous streams and creeks throughout modern day Manhattan Island. The first human Inhabitants were by theLenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically relatedNative Americans traditionally spoke anAlgonquian language now referred to asUnami. Early European settlers called bands of Lenape by the Unamiplace name for where they lived, such as "Raritan" inStaten Island andNew Jersey, "Canarsee" inBrooklyn, and "Hackensack" in New Jersey across theHudson River fromLower Manhattan. Some modern place names such asRaritan Bay andCanarsie are derived from Lenape names. EasternLong Island neighbors were culturally and linguistically more closely related to theMohegan-Pequot peoples of New England who spoke theMohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language.[4]
These peoples made use of the abundant waterways in theNew York region for fishing, hunting trips, trade, and occasionally war. Many paths created by the indigenous peoples are now main thoroughfares, such asBroadway inManhattan,the Bronx, andWestchester.[5] The Lenape developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, they were cultivating fields of vegetation through theslash and burn technique, which extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bay.[6] Historians estimate that at the time of European settlement, approximately 5,000 Lenape lived in 80 settlements around the region.[7][8]
The first European visitor to the area was Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian in command of the French shipLa Dauphine in 1524. It is believed he sailed intoUpper New York Bay, where he encountered native Lenape, returned through theNarrows, where he anchored the night of April 17, and left to continue his voyage. He named the area NewAngoulême (La Nouvelle-Angoulême)[9] in honor ofFrancis I, King of France of the royal house ofValois-Angoulême and who had beenCount of Angoulême from 1496 until his coronation in 1515.[10][11] The name refers to the town ofAngoulême, in theCharentedépartement ofFrance. For the next century, the area was occasionally visited by fur traders or explorers, such as byEsteban Gomez in 1525.[8]: 11–12
European exploration continued on September 2, 1609, when the EnglishmanHenry Hudson, in the employ of theDutch East India Company, sailed theHalf Moon through the Narrows into Upper New York Bay. LikeChristopher Columbus, Hudson was looking for a westerly passage toAsia. He never found one, but he did take note of the abundantbeaver population. Beaver pelts were in fashion in Europe, fueling a lucrative business. Hudson's report on the regional beaver population served as the impetus for the founding of Dutch trading colonies in theNew World.[8] The beaver's importance in New York's history is reflected by its use on the city's official seal.[12]
The firstDutchfur trading posts and settlements were in 1614 near present-dayAlbany, New York, the same year thatNew Netherland first appeared on maps. Only in May 1624 did theDutch West India Company land a number of families atNoten Eylant (today'sGovernors Island) off the southern tip ofManhattan at the mouth of theNorth River (today's Hudson River).[13] Soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction ofFort Amsterdam began.[13] Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they were forced to build the wall that defended the town against English and Indian attacks. Early directors includedWillem Verhulst andPeter Minuit.Willem Kieft becamedirector in 1638 but five years later was embroiled inKieft's War against the Native Americans. ThePavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-dayJersey City, resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre,Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. Holland sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645.[14]
_Stuyvesant_portrait_c1660.jpg)
On May 27, 1647,Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival and ruled as a member of theDutch Reformed Church. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653.[15] The first mayors (burgemeesters) of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year.[16] By the early 1660s, the population consisted of approximately 1500 Europeans, only about half of whom were Dutch, and 375 Africans, 300 of whom were slaves.[17][a]
A few of the original Dutch place names have been retained, most notably Flushing (after the Dutch town ofVlissingen), Harlem (afterHaarlem), and Brooklyn (afterBreukelen). Few buildings, however, remain from the 17th century. The oldest recorded house still in existence in New York, the Pieter ClaesenWyckoff House in Brooklyn, dates from 1652.
On August 27, 1664, four English frigates under the command of Col. Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender, as part of an effort byKing Charles II's brotherJames, Duke of York, theLord High Admiral to provoke theSecond Anglo-Dutch War. Two weeks later, Stuyvesant officially capitulated by signing Articles of Surrender and in June 1665, the town was reincorporated under English law andrenamed "New York" after the Duke, and Fort Orange was renamed "Fort Albany".[19][20] The war ended in a Dutch victory in 1667, but the colony remained under English rule as stipulated in theTreaty of Breda. During theThird Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch briefly recaptured the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland toEngland for what is nowSuriname in November 1674 at theTreaty of Westminster.[21]
The colony benefited from increasedimmigration from Europe and its population grew faster. The Bolting Act of 1678, whereby no mill outside the city was permitted to grind wheat or corn, boosted growth until its repeal in 1694, increasing the number of houses over the period from 384 to 983.[22]
In the context of theGlorious Revolution in England,Jacob Leisler ledLeisler's Rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed.[23][24]
In New York at first, legal practitioners were full-time businessmen and merchants, with no legal training, who had watched a few court proceedings. They mostly used their own common sense together with snippets they had picked up aboutEnglish law. Court proceedings were quite informal, for the judges had no more training than the attorneys.
By the 1760s, the situation had dramatically changed. Lawyers were essential to the rapidly growing international trade, dealing with questions of partnerships, contracts, and insurance. The sums of money involved were large, and hiring an incompetent lawyer was a very expensive proposition. Lawyers were now professionally trained, and conversant in an extremely complex language that combined highly specific legal terms and motions with a dose of Latin. Court proceedings became a baffling mystery to the ordinary layman. Lawyers became more specialized and built their reputation, and their fee schedule, on the basis of their reputation for success. But as their status, wealth and power rose, animosity grew even faster.[25] By the 1750s and 1760s, there was a widespread attack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers (lawyers lacking sound legal skills). Their image and influence declined.[26] The lawyers organized abar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in theDelancey andLivingston families. A large fraction of the prominent lawyers were Loyalists; their clientele was often to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went toBritain orCanada (primarily to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) after losing the war.[27]
For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, to build an effective organization of lawyers. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.[28]
By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200.[7] The Dutch West Indies Company transportedAfrican slaves to the post as trading laborers used to build the fort and stockade, and some gained freedom under the Dutch. After the seizure of the colony in 1664, the slave trade continued to be legal. In 1703, 42% of the New York households had slaves; they served as domestic servants and laborers but also became involved in skilled trades, shipping and other fields. Yet following reform in ethics according to AmericanEnlightenment thought, by the 1770s slaves made up less than 25% of the population.[29]
By the 1740s, 20% of the residents of New York wereslaves,[30] totaling about 2,500 people.[31]
After a series of fires in 1741, the city panicked over rumors of its black population conspiring with some poor whites toburn the city. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 black and 4 white people, who over a period of months were convicted of arson. Of these, the city executed 13 black people by burning them alive and hanged the remainder of those incriminated.[32]
In 1754,Columbia University was founded under charter byKing George II as King's College inLower Manhattan.[33]
TheStamp Act and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among Sons of Liberty who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops overLiberty Poles from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of theContinental Army in theBattle of Long Island in late 1776, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at theBattle of Fort Washington the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington'sespionage and intelligence-gathering throughout the war.
New York was greatly damaged twice byfires of suspicious origin, with the Loyalists and Patriots accusing each other of starting the conflagration. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war. Continental Army officerNathan Hale was hanged in Manhattan forespionage. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured Americanprisoners of war aboardprison ships inWallabout Bay, across theEast River in Brooklyn. More Americans lost their lives aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war.[34] The British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, asthe last British forces left the city.
_Map_1849_by_James_Charles_Sidney.jpg)
Starting in 1785 theCongress met in the city of New York under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York became the firstnational capital under the new Constitution. The Constitution also created the currentCongress of the United States, and its first sitting was atFederal Hall onWall Street. The firstSupreme Court sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall.[35] New York remained the national capital until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia.
During the 19th century, the city was transformed byimmigration, a visionary development proposal called theCommissioners' Plan of 1811 which expanded the citystreet grid to encompass all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of theMidwestern United States and Canada. By 1835, New York had surpassedPhiladelphia as the largest city in the United States. New York grew as an economic center, first as a result ofAlexander Hamilton's policies and practices as the firstSecretary of the Treasury.[36][37]
In 1842, water was piped from a reservoir to supply the city for the first time.[38]
TheGreat Irish Famine (1845–1850) brought a large influx ofIrish immigrants, and by 1850 the Irish comprised one quarter of the city's population.[39] Government institutions, including theNew York City Police Department and thepublic schools, were established in the 1840s and 1850s to respond to growing demands of residents.[40] In 1831,New York University was founded by U.S. Secretary of the TreasuryAlbert Gallatin as anon-denominal institution surrounding Washington Square Park.[41]
This period started with the 1855 inauguration ofFernando Wood as the first mayor fromTammany Hall. It was thepolitical machine based amongIrish Americans that controlled the localDemocratic Party. It usually dominated local politics throughout this period and into the 1930s.[42] Public-minded members of the merchant community pressed for aCentral Park, which was opened to a design competition in 1857; it became the first landscape park in an American city.
During theAmerican Civil War (1861–1865), the city was affected by its history of strong commercial ties to theSouth; before the war, half of its exports were related to cotton, including textiles from upstate mills. Together with its growing immigrant population, which was angry aboutconscription, sympathies among residents were divided for both theUnion andConfederacy at the outbreak of war. Tensions related to the war culminated in theDraft Riots of 1863 led by Irish Catholics, who attacked black neighborhood and abolitionist homes.[43] Many blacks left the city and moved to Brooklyn. After the Civil War, the rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new and better life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of theStatue of Liberty in 1886.
From 1890 to 1930, the largest cities, led by New York, were the focus of international attention. The skyscrapers and tourist attractions were widely publicized. Suburbs were emerging as bedroom communities for commuters to the central city.San Francisco dominated theWest,Atlanta dominated theSouth,Boston dominated New England;Chicago dominated theMidwest United States. New York City dominated the entire nation in terms of communications, trade, finance, popular culture, and high culture. More than a fourth of the 300 largest corporations in 1920 were headquartered here.[44]
In 1898, the modernCity of New York was formed with the consolidation ofBrooklyn (until then an independent city),Manhattan, and outlying areas.[45] Manhattan andthe Bronx were established as two separateboroughs and joined with three other boroughs created from parts of adjacent counties to form the new municipal government originally called "Greater New York". The Borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge; the Borough ofQueens was created from western Queens County (with the remnant established asNassau County in 1899); and the Borough of Richmond contained all ofRichmond County. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions were absorbed by the city or each borough.[46] In 1914, the New York State Legislature created Bronx County, making five counties coterminous with the five boroughs.
The Bronx had a steady boom period during 1898–1929, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression created a surge of unemployment, especially among the working class, and a slow-down of growth.[47]
On June 15, 1904, over 1,000 people, mostly German immigrant women and children, were killed when the excursion steamshipGeneral Slocum caught fire and sank. It is the city's worst maritime disaster. On March 25, 1911, theTriangle Shirtwaist Factory fire inGreenwich Village took the lives of 146 garment workers. In response, the city made great advancements in the fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations.
Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication, marking its rising influence with such events as theHudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909.Interborough Rapid Transit (the firstNew York City Subway company) began operating in 1904, and the railroads operating out ofGrand Central Terminal andPennsylvania Station thrived.
From 1918 to 1920, New York City wasaffected by the largest rent strike wave in its history.[48][49][50][51] Somewhere between several tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands of tenants went on strike across the city.[52]: 82 AWW1 housing and coal shortage sparked the strikes.[53][54] It became marked both by occasional violent scuffles and theRed Scare.[55]: 57–72 It would lead to the passage of the first rent laws in the nation's history.[56][57]
.svg)
The city was a destination for internal migrants as well as immigrants. Through 1940, New York was a major destination forAfrican Americans during theGreat Migration from the rural American South. TheHarlem Renaissance flourished during the 1920s and the era ofProhibition. New York's ever accelerating changes and rising crime and poverty rates were reduced after World War I disrupted trade routes, theImmigration Restriction Acts limited additional immigration after the war, and the Great Depression reduced the need for new labor. The combination ended the rule of theGilded Age barons. As the city's demographics temporarily stabilized, labor unionization helped the working class gain new protections and middle-class affluence, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul underFiorello La Guardia, and his controversial parks commissioner,Robert Moses, ended the blight of many tenement areas, expanded new parks, remade streets, and restricted and reorganizedzoning controls.
For a while, New York ranked as the most populous city in the world, overtakingLondon in 1925, which had reigned for a century.[59] During the difficult years of the Great Depression, the reformer Fiorello La Guardia was elected as mayor, and Tammany Hall fell after eighty years of political dominance.[60]
Despite the effects of the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were built during the 1930s.Art Deco architecture—such as the iconicChrysler Building,Empire State Building, and30 Rockefeller Plaza— came to define the city's skyline. Theconstruction of the Rockefeller Center occurred in the 1930s and was the largest-ever private development project at the time. Both before and especially after World War II, vast areas of the city were also reshaped by the construction of bridges, parks and parkways coordinated by Robert Moses, the greatest proponent of automobile-centered modernist urbanism in America.
Returning World War II veterans and immigrants from Europe created a postwar economic boom. Demands for new housing were aided by theG.I. Bill for veterans, stimulating the development of huge suburban tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County. The city was extensively photographed during the post–war years by photographerTodd Webb.[61]
New York emerged from the war as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading the United States ascendancy. In 1951, theUnited Nations relocated from its first headquarters inFlushing Meadows Park, Queens, to theEast Side of Manhattan.[62] During the late 1960s, the views of real estate developer and city leader Robert Moses began to fall out of favor as the anti-urban renewal views ofJane Jacobs gained popularity. Citizen rebellion stopped a plan to construct anexpressway throughLower Manhattan.
After a short war boom, the Bronx declined from 1950 to 1985, going from predominantly moderate-income to mostly lower-income, with high rates of violent crime and poverty. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today.[63]
The transition away from the industrial base toward a service economy picked up speed, while the jobs in the large shipbuilding and garment industries declined sharply. The ports converted to container ships, costing many traditional jobs among longshoremen. Many large corporations moved their headquarters to the suburbs or to distant cities. At the same time, there was enormous growth in services, especially finance, education, medicine, tourism, communications and law. New York remained the largest city and largest metropolitan area in the United States, and continued as its largest financial, commercial, information, and cultural center.
Like many major U.S. cities, New York suffered race riots, gang wars and some population decline in the late 1960s. Street activists and minority groups such as theBlack Panthers andYoung Lords organized rent strikes and garbage offensives, demanding improved city services for poor areas. They also set up free health clinics and other programs, as a guide for organizing and gaining "Power to the People." By the 1970s the city had gained a reputation as a crime-ridden relic of history. In 1975, the city government avoided bankruptcy only through a federal loan anddebt restructuring by the Municipal Assistance Corporation, headed byFelix Rohatyn. The city was also forced to accept increased financial scrutiny by an agency of New York State. In 1977, the city was struck by theNew York City blackout of 1977 and serial slayings by theSon of Sam.[64]Ed Koch became mayor in 1978.[65]
 |
The 1980s began a rebirth of Wall Street, and the city reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry. Unemployment and crime remained high, the latter reaching peak levels in some categories around the close of the decade and the beginning of the 1990s. Neighborhood restoration projects funded by the city and state had very good effects for New York, especiallyBedford-Stuyvesant, Harlem, and The Bronx. The city later resumed its social and economic recovery, bolstered by the influx of Asians, Latin Americans, and U.S. citizens, and by new crime-fighting techniques on the part of theNew York Police Department.[citation needed] In1989,David Dinkins became the city's first Black mayor. He came out of theGang of Four.[66]
Rudy Giuliani became mayor in 1994.[67] In the late 1990s, the city benefited from the nationwide fall of violent crime rates, the resurgence of the finance industry, and the growth of the "Silicon Alley", during thedot com boom, one of the factors in a decade of booming real estate values. New York was also able to attract more business and convert abandoned industrialized neighborhoods into arts or attractive residential neighborhoods; examples include theMeatpacking District andChelsea (in Manhattan) andWilliamsburg (in Brooklyn).
New York's population reached an all-time high in the2000 census; according to census estimates since 2000, the city has continued to grow, including rapid growth in the most urbanized borough, Manhattan. During this period, New York City was a site of theSeptember 11 attacks of 2001;2,606 people who were in the towers and in the surrounding area were killed by aterrorist attack on the World Trade Center, an event considered highly traumatic for the city but which did not stop the city's rapid regrowth. On November 3, 2014,One World Trade Center opened on the site of the attack.[68]
Michael Bloomberg became mayor in 2002.[69] TheOccupy Wall Street protest movement happened in New York City in 2011.[70]Hurricane Sandy brought a destructivestorm surge to New York in the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan. It flooded low-lying areas of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. Electrical power was lost in many parts of the city and its suburbs.[71]
Bill de Blasio became mayor in 2014. Despite efforts to promote equity, the racial achievement gap in New York City's public schools widened during his time in office. While the administration invested in programs to address homelessness, the number of homeless individuals remained high and was a consistent point of criticism. De Blasio had a strained relationship with the city's police unions, particularly in the wake of protests against police brutality. His signature achievement was providing free, full-day pre-kindergarten to all of the city's four-year-olds. De Blasio set ambitious goals for creating and preserving affordable housing units through his "Housing New York" plan. De Blasio implemented various programs aimed at addressing inequalities in the public school system, including expanding access to computer science, AP classes, and college access programs in all high schools.[72]
The city went into lockdown in March 2020 amidst the first wave of theCOVID-19 pandemic. As of December 2021[update], New York City had experienced the most deaths of any locality in thecoronavirus pandemic in New York state, which itself has the highest number of confirmed coronavirus cases of any state in theUnited States.[73] During the first wave, one-third of total known U.S. caseswere in New York City.[74]
Eric Adams became mayor in 2022.[75] In 2024, Adams became the first New York City mayor to be indicted on criminal charges. He has been federally charged with corruption and bribery.[76]
In 1945... Todd Webb moved to New York City and began a remarkable project. For the next year Mr. Webb walked the streets of the city with a heavy camera and tripod, photographing the buildings and people he encountered...
| By topic | |
|---|---|
| Boroughs |
|
| Government | |
| Emergency services | |
| Transportation | |
| Culture | |
| Education | |
| History | |
