Nepal is amulti-ethnic, multiracial,multicultural,multi-religious, andmultilingual country. The most spoken language isNepali followed by several other ethnic languages.
The lands of modern-day Nepal are widely regarded to be the birthplace ofBuddhism andthe Buddha,[1] which eventually spread intoIndia andSri Lanka, acrossEast andSoutheast Asia, and as far west asKalmykia inRussia.[2][3] The modern dayKingdom of Nepal was established in 1768 and started a campaign of unifying what would form the modern territories of Nepal. Some former territories had been lost due to theAnglo-Nepalese War and theSino-Nepalese War. In the Sino-Nepalese war, the conflict ended with both victories and losses with the kingdom ultimately acceptingtributary status with theQing dynasty of China from 1792 to 1865.[4] TheAnglo-Nepalese War ended in British victory and resulted in the ceding some Nepalese territory in theTreaty of Sugauli. In a historical vote for the election of theconstituent assembly, the Nepalese parliament voted to abolish themonarchy in June 2006. Nepal became afederal republic on 28 May 2008 and was formally renamed the 'Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal' ending the 200-year-old reign of theShah monarchs. From 8-13 Sep 2025, awidespread riot was caused by economic corruption and the banning of social media.[5][6]
Nepal's origin remains a mystery despite written records dating back to the fifth century A.D. Classical Indian sources mention Nepal, and Nepali stories delve into mythology, religion, and culture rather than providing a clear historical account.[7]
The derivation of the word Nepal is a subject of various theories:
Prehistoric sites ofpalaeolithic,mesolithic andneolithic origins have been discovered in theSiwalik hills ofDang district.[10] It is possible that theDravidian people whose history predates the onset of theBronze Age in the Indian subcontinent (around 3300 BCE) inhabited the area before the arrival of other ethnic groups like theTibeto-Burmans and long beforeIndo-Aryans from across the border.The Tibeto-Burman peoples were likely the earliest significant settlers in Nepal, especially in the highlands and hilly regions. The Indo-Aryans arrived later, contributing significantly to the cultural and linguistic framework of Nepal, especially in the Kathmandu Valley and lowlands.The Dravidian presence in Nepal is minimal, as they primarily settled in the southern parts of India after Indo-Aryan expansion pushed them southward.[11]Tharus who were Tibeto-Burmans mixed heavily with Indigenous tibes in the southern regions, are natives of the centralMadhesh Province and Terai region of Nepal.[12] The first documented tribes in Nepal are theKirat people is the record of Kirat Kings fromKirata Kingdom from 800 BCE, which shows Kirats were recorded in Nepal last 2000 to 2500 years, with an extensive dominion, possibly reaching at one time to the delta of theGanges.[13] Other ethnic groups of Indo-Aryan origin later migrated to southern part of Nepal from Indo-Gangetic Plain ofnorthern India.[14][15]
Emperor Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several significant structures in Nepal. These include theRamagrama Stupa,Gotihawa Pillar of Ashoka,Nigali-Sagar Ashoka Pillar inscription, and theLumbini pillar inscription of Ashoka.The Chinese pilgrimsFa-Hien (337 CE – c. 422 CE) andXuanzang (602–664 CE) describe the Kanakamuni Stupa and the Asoka Pillar of currently Nepal region in their travel accounts. Xuanzang speaks of a lion capital atop the pillar, now lost. A base of aPillar of Ashoka has been discovered atGotihawa, a few miles from Nigali Sagar, and it has been suggested that it is the original base of the Nigalar Sagar pillar fragments.[16] In 249 BCE, Emperor Asoka founded Lalitapatan city of Nepal.[17][18]
Although very little is known about the early history of Nepal, legends and documented references reach far back to the 30th century BCE.[19] Also, the presence of historical sites such as theValmiki ashram, indicates the presence ofSanatana (ancient) Hindu culture in parts of Nepal at that period.
According to legendary accounts, the early rulers of Nepal were theGopālavaṃśi (Gopal Vansha) or "cowherd dynasty", who presumably ruled for about five centuries. They are said to have been followed by theMahiṣapālavaṃśa or "buffalo-herder dynasty", established by aYadav named Bhul Singh.[20]
TheShakya clan formed an independent oligarchic republican state known as theŚākya Gaṇarājya during the lateVedic period (c. 1000 – c. 500 BCE) and the later so-calledsecond urbanisation period (c. 600 – c. 200 BCE).[21] Its capital wasKapilavastu, which may have been located in present-dayTilaurakot,Nepal.[22][23][24]Gautama Buddha (c. 6th to 4th centuries BCE), whose teachings became the foundation ofBuddhism, was the best-known Shakya.He was known in his lifetime as "Siddhartha Gautama" and "Shakyamuni" (Sage of the Shakyas). He was the son ofŚuddhodana, the elected leader of the Śākya Gaṇarājya.
The context ofKirat Dynasty ruling in Nepal before Licchavi dynasty and after Mahispal (Ahir) dynasty are depicted in different manuscripts. Kirat dynasty was the longest ruling dynasty in Nepalese history, ruling from the 800 BCE–300 CE for about 1,225 years. They ruled kathmandu valley before delineating the area between theSun Koshi (Pronounced exactly as written) andTama Koshi (Tāmā Koshi) rivers as their native land, the list of Kirati kings is also given in the Gopal genealogy. TheMahisapala dynasty was a dynasty established byAbhira that ruled theKathmandu Valley.[25][26][27] They took control of Nepal after replacing theGopala dynasty.[28] Three kings of Mahisapala dynasty ruled the valley before they were overthrown by theKirats.[29][30] They were also known as Mahispalbanshi.[31] By defeating the last king of the Avir dynasty Bhuwansingh in a battle, Kirati King Yalung orYalambar had taken the regime of the valley under his control. In Hindu mythological perspective, this event is believed to have taken place in the final phase ofDvapara Yuga or initial phase ofKali Yuga or around the 6th century BCE. Descriptions of 32, 28 and 29 Kirati kings are found according to the Gopal genealogy, language-genealogy and Wright genealogy respectively.[32] By means of the notices contained in the classics of the East and West, theKiranti people were living in their present whereabouts for the last 2000 to 2500 years, with an extensive dominion, possibly reaching at one time to the delta of theGanges.[13]
During the time of theGupta Empire, the Indian emperorSamudragupta recorded Nepal as a "frontier kingdom" which paid an annual tribute. This was recorded by Samudragupta'sAllahabad Pillar inscription, which states the following in lines 22–23.
"Samudragupta, whose formidable rule was propitiated with the payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court) for obeisance by such frontier rulers as those of Samataṭa,Ḍavāka,Kāmarūpa,Nēpāla, andKartṛipura, and, by theMālavas,Ārjunāyanas,Yaudhēyas,Mādrakas,Ābhīras, Prārjunas, Sanakānīkas, Kākas, Kharaparikas and other nations"
— Lines 22–23 of theAllahabad pillar inscription ofSamudragupta (r.c.350-375 CE).[33]
The kings of theLichhavi dynasty (originally fromVaishali in modern-day India) ruled what is the Kathmandu valley in modern-day Nepal after the Kirats. It is mentioned in some genealogies and Puranas that the "Suryavansi Kshetriyas had established a new regime by defeating the Kirats". ThePashupati Purana mentions that "the masters of Vaishali established their own regime by confiding Kiratis with sweet words and defeating them in war". Similar contexts can be found inHimbatkhanda, which also mentions that "the masters of Vaishali had started ruling in Nepal by defeating Kirats". Different genealogies state different names of the last Kirati king. According to the Gopal genealogy, the Lichhavis established their rule in Nepal by defeating the last Kirati King 'Khigu', 'Galiz' according to the language-genealogy and 'Gasti' according to Wright genealogy.[32]
After Aramudi, who is mentioned in the Kashmirian chronicle, the Rajatarangini of Kalhana (1150 CE), many Thakuri kings ruled over parts of the country up to the middle of the 12th century CE. Raghava Deva is said to have founded a ruling dynasty in 879 CE, when the Lichhavi rule came to an end. To commemorate this important event, Raghava Deva started the 'Nepal Era' which began on 20 October, 879 CE. AfterAmshuvarma, who ruled from 605 CE onward; the Thakuris had lost power and they could regain it only in 869 CE.[citation needed]
Gunakama Deva, who ruled from 949 to 994 CE, commissioned the construction of a big wooden shelter, built from the wood of a single tree, calledKasthamandapa. The name of the capital, 'Kathmandu', is derived from this. Gunakama Deva founded the town Kantipur (modern-day Kathmandu). The tradition ofIndra Jatra started during his reign. Bhola Deva succeeded Gunakama Deva. The next ruler was Laxmikama Deva who ruled from 1024 to 1040 CE. He built the Laksmi Vihara and introduced the tradition of worshiping theKumari; young prepubescent girls believed to be manifestations of the divine female energy ordevi. He was succeeded by his son, Vijayakama Deva, who introduced the worship of theNaga andVasuki. Vijaykama Deva was the last ruler of this dynasty. After his death, the Thakuri clan of Nuwakot occupied the throne of Nepal.
Bhaskara Deva, a Thakuri from Nuwakot, succeeded Vijayakama. He is said to have built Navabahal and Hemavarna Vihara. After Bhaskara Deva, four kings of this line ruled over the country. They were Bala Deva, Padma Deva, Nagarjuna Deva and Shankara Deva. Shankara Deva (1067–1080 CE) was the most illustrious ruler of this dynasty. He established the image of 'Shantesvara Mahadeva' and 'Manohara Bhagavati'. The custom of pasting the pictures of Nagas and Vasuki on the doors of houses on the day ofNagapanchami was introduced by him. During his rule, the Buddhists wreaked vengeance on the Hindu Brahmins (especially the followers of Shaivism) for the harm they had received earlier from theShankaracharya.[citation needed] Shankara Deva tried to pacify the Brahmins harassed by the Buddhists.
Bama Deva, a descendant of Amshuvarma, defeated Shankar Deva in 1080 CE. He suppressed the Nuwakot-Thankuris with the help of nobles and restored the old Solar Dynasty rule in Nepal for the second time. Harsha Deva, the successor of Bama Deva was a weak ruler. There was no unity among the nobles and they asserted themselves in their respective spheres of influence. Taking that opportunity Nanya Deva, a Karnat dynasty king, attacked Nuwakot from Simraungarh. The army successfully defended and won the battle. After Harsha Deva, Shivadeva the third ruled from 1099 to 1126 CE. He founded the town of Kirtipur and roofed the temple of Pashupatinath with gold. He introduced twenty-five paisa coins. After Sivadeva III, Mahendra Deva, Mana Deva, Narendra Deva II, Ananda Deva, Rudra Deva, Amrita Deva, Ratna Deva II, Somesvara Deva, Gunakama Deva II, Lakmikama Deva III and Vijayakama Deva II ruled Nepal in quick succession. Historians differ about the rule of several kings and their respective times. After the fall of the Thakuri dynasty, a new dynasty was founded by Arideva or Ari Malla, known as the 'Malla dynasty'.
EarlyMalla rule started withAri Malla in the 12th century. Over the next two centuries, his kingdom expanded widely, into much of the Indian subcontinent and western Tibet, before disintegrating into small principalities, which later came to be known as theBaise Rajya.
Jayasthiti Malla, with whom commences the later Malla dynasty of the Kathmandu valley, began to reign at the end of the 14th century. This era in the valley is eminent for the various social and economic reforms such as the'Sanskritization' of the valley people, new methods of land measurement and allocation, etc. In this era, new forms of art and architecture was introduced. The monuments in Kathmandu valley which are listed in theUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites were built during Malla rule. In the 14th century, before Kathmandu was divided into three princely states,Araniko was sent to China upon the request ofAbhaya Malla to represent skills of art and architecture, and he introduced the pagoda style of architecture to China and, subsequently, the whole of Asia.Yaksha Malla, the grandson ofJayasthiti Malla, ruled the Kathmandu valley until almost the end of the 15th century. After his demise, the valley was divided into four independent kingdoms—Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Patan, and Banepa—in about 1484 CE. Banepa, however, soon came under the control of Bhaktapur. This division led the Malla rulers into internecine clashes and wars for territorial and commercial gains. Mutually debilitating wars gradually weakened them, which facilitated the conquest of the valley byPrithvi Narayan Shah ofGorkha. The last Malla rulers wereJaya Prakash Malla, Teja Narasingha Malla andRanjit Malla of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur respectively.
The Simroun, Simroon, Karnat or Dev dynasty originated with an establishment of a kingdom in 1097 CE headquartered at the medieval citadel ofSimraungadh on the India-Nepal border:[34]
In 1324 CE,Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq attacked Simroungarh and demolished the fort. The remains are still scattered across the Simroungarh region. The king, Harisingh Dev, fled northwards where his son, Jagatsingh Dev, was married to the widowed princess of Bhaktapur, Nayak Devi.[35]
The Khasa Malla kings ruled western parts of Nepal during 11th–14th century.[36] The language of the Khas Kingdom wasKhas language andSanskrit.
After thesiege of Chittorgarh in 1303, a large wave of immigration ofRajputs into Nepal occurred. Before the siege, only a few small groups ofRajputs had been entering into the region fromMuslim invasion of India. These immigrants were quickly absorbed into theKhas community due to their similarities.[citation needed]
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Prithvi Narayan Shah (c. 1768–1775) was the ninth generation descendant ofDravya Shah (1559–1570), the founder of the ruling house of Gorkha. Prithvi Narayan Shah succeeded his fatherNara Bhupal Shah to the throne of Gorkha in 1743 CE. King Prithvi Narayan Shah was quite aware of the political situation of the valley kingdoms as well as of theBaise andChaubise principalities. He foresaw the need for unifying the small principalities as an urgent condition for survival in the future and set himself to the task accordingly.
His assessment of the situation among the hill principalities was correct, and the principalities were subjugated fairly easily. King Prithvi Narayan Shah's victory march began with the conquest of Nuwakot, which lies between Kathmandu and Gorkha, in 1744. After Nuwakot, he occupied strategic points in the hills surrounding the Kathmandu valley. The valley's communications with the outside world were thus cut off. The occupation of theKuti Pass in about 1756 stopped the valley's trade with Tibet. Finally, Prithvi Narayan Shah entered the valley. After the victory inKirtipur, King Jaya Prakash Malla of Kathmandu sought help from the British and the thenEast India Company sent a contingent of soldiers under Captain Kinloch in 1767. The British force was defeated in Sindhuli by the Gorkhali army. This defeat of the British completely shattered the hopes of King Jaya Prakash Malla. On 25 September 1768, as the people of Kathmandu were celebrating the festival of Indra Jatra, the Gorkhali army marched into the city. Prithvi Narayan Shah sat on a throne put on the palace courtyard for the king of Kathmandu, proclaiming himself the king. Jaya Prakash Malla somehow managed to escape and took asylum in Patan. When Patan was captured a few weeks later, both Jaya Prakash Malla and Tej Narsingh Malla, the king of Patan took refuge in Bhaktapur, which was captured on the night of 25 November 1769. The Kathmandu valley was thus conquered by King Prithvi Narayan Shah, who proclaimed himself King with Kathmandu as the royal capital of theKingdom of Nepal.[37]
King Prithvi Narayan Shah was successful in bringing together diverse religious-ethnic groups under one rule. He was a true nationalist in his outlook and was in favour of adopting a closed-door policy against the British. Not only did his social and economic views guide the country's socio-economic course for a long time, but his use of the imagery of "a yam between two boulders" in Nepal's geopolitical context formed the principal guideline of the country's foreign policy for future centuries.
In the 16th century, a dynasty emerged in the southern parts ofNepal near the border withBihar which used the Sena surname and claimed descent from the Senas of Bengal. One of their branches formed theSena dynasty of Makwanpur which ruled from the fort ofMakwanpur Gadhi.[38] This branch of the Sena dynasty adopted the local language of the region,Maithili which became their state language.[39]
After decades of rivalry between the medieval kingdoms, modernNepal was unified in the latter half of the 18th century, whenPrithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorkha, formed a unified country from a number of independent hill high states. After the death of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the Shah dynasty began to expand their kingdom into much of the Indian subcontinent. Between 1788 and 1791, during theSino-Nepalese War, Nepal invadedTibet and robbedTashilhunpo Monastery inShigatse. Alarmed, theQianlong Emperor of the ChineseQing dynasty appointedFuk'anggan commander-in-chief of the Tibetan campaign; Fuk'anggan signed a treaty to protect his troops thus attaining a draw.[40]
After 1800, the heirs of Prithvi Narayan Shah proved unable to maintain firm political control over Nepal. A period of internal turmoil followed. The rivalry between Nepal and theBritish East India Company over the princely states bordering Nepal and British-India eventually led to theAnglo-Nepalese War (1814–16), in which Nepal suffered substantial losses due to lack of guns and ammunitions against the British-Indian forces with advanced weapons. TheTreaty of Sugauli was signed in 1816, ceding large parts of the Nepalese controlled territories to the British. In 1860 some parts of western Terai, known asNaya Muluk (new country) was restored to Nepal. The four noble families involved largely in the active politics of the kingdom were theShah rulers, theThapas, theBasnyats, and thePandes before the rise of theRana dynasty.[41] From beginning to the mid of 18th century, the Thapas and Pandes had extreme dominance over Nepalese Darbar politics alternatively contesting for central power amongst each other.[42]
Jung Bahadur Rana was the first ruler from this dynasty. Rana rulers were titled "Shree Teen" and "Maharaja", whereas Shah kings were "Shree Panch" and "Maharajadhiraja". Jung Bahadur codified laws and modernized the state's bureaucracy. In the coup d'état of 1846, the nephews of Jung Bahadur andRanodip Singh murdered Ranodip Singh and the sons of Jung Bahadur, adopted the name of Jung Bahadur and took control of Nepal. Nine Rana rulers took the hereditary office of Prime Minister. All were styled (self proclaimed) Maharaja ofLamjung andKaski.
The Rana regime, a tightly centralizedautocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its independence during the British colonial era, but it also impeded the country's economic development and modernisation. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted the British during theIndian Rebellion of 1857 and later in bothWorld Wars. At the same time, despite Chinese claims, the British supported Nepalese independence at the beginning of the twentieth century.[43] In December 1923, Britain and Nepal formally signed a "treaty of perpetual peace and friendship" superseding the Sugauli Treaty of 1816 and upgrading the British resident in Kathmandu to an envoy.
Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924 under premiership ofChandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana.[44]
Following theGerman invasion of Poland, the Kingdom of Nepaldeclared war on Germany on 4 September 1939. Once Japan entered the conflict, sixteen battalions of theNepali Army fought on theBurmese front. In addition to military support, Nepal contributed guns, equipment as well as hundreds of thousand of pounds of tea, sugar and raw materials such as timber to theAllied war effort.
Therevolution of 1951 started when dissatisfaction against the family rule of the Ranas started emerging from among the few educated people, who had studied in various South Asian schools and colleges, and also from within the Ranas, many of whom were marginalized within the ruling Rana hierarchy. Many of these Nepalese in exile had actively taken part in theIndian Independence struggle and wanted to liberate Nepal as well from the autocratic Rana occupation. The political parties such as thePraja Parishad andNepali Congress were already formed in exile by leaders such asB. P. Koirala,Ganesh Man Singh,Subarna Sumsher Rana,Krishna Prasad Bhattarai,Girija Prasad Koirala, and many other patriotic-minded Nepalis who urged the military and popular political movement in Nepal to overthrow the autocratic Rana regime. The Nepali Congress also formed a military wingNepali Congress's Liberation Army. Among the prominent martyrs to die for the cause, executed at the hands of the Ranas, wereDharma Bhakta Mathema,Shukraraj Shastri,Gangalal Shrestha, andDasharath Chand who were the members of the Praja Parisad. This turmoil culminated inKing Tribhuvan, a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fleeing from his "palace prison" in 1950, to India, touching offan armed revolt against the Rana administration. This eventually ended in the return of the Shah family to power and the appointment of a non-Rana as prime minister following a tri-partite agreement signed called 'Delhi Compromise'. A period of quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model. A 10-member cabinet under Prime MinisterMohan Shumsher with 5 members of the Rana family and 5 of the Nepali Congress was formed. This government drafted a constitution called the 'Interim Government Act' which was the first constitution of Nepal. But this government failed to work in consensus as the Ranas and Congressmen were never on good terms. So, on 16 November 1951, the king formed a new government of 14 ministers underMatrika Prasad Koirala, which was later dissolved.
The first democratic elections were heldin 1959, and B. P. Koirala was elected prime minister. But declaring parliamentary democracy a failure,King Mahendra carried out a royal coup 18 months later, in 1960. He dismissed the elected Koirala government, declared that a "partyless" system would govern Nepal, and promulgated a new constitution on 16 December 1960. Subsequently, the elected prime minister, members of parliament and hundreds of democratic activists were arrested.
The new constitution established a "partyless"Panchayat system which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government, closer to Nepalese traditions. As a pyramidal structure, progressing from village assemblies to theRastriya Panchayat, the Panchayat system constitutionalized the absolute power of the monarch and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the cabinet (council of ministers) and the parliament. One-state-one-language became the national policy in an effort to carry out state unification, uniting various ethnic and regional groups into a singular Nepali nationalist bond. TheBack to Village Campaign (Nepali:गाउँ फर्क अभियान) launched in 1967, was one of the main rural development programs of the Panchayat system.
King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27-year-old son, KingBirendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a national referendum to decide on the nature of Nepal's government; either the continuation of the Panchayat system along with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was heldin May 1980, and the Panchayat system gained a narrow victory. The king carried out the promised reforms, including selection of the prime minister by the Rastriya Panchayat.
People in rural areas had expected that their interests would be better represented after the adoption of parliamentary democracy in 1990. TheNepali Congress with the support of theUnited Left Front decided to launch a decisive agitational movement, theJana Andolan, which forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament. In May 1991, Nepal held itsfirst parliamentary elections in nearly 50 years. The Nepali Congress won 110 of the 205 seats and formed the first elected government in 32 years.
In 1992, in a situation of economic crisis and chaos, with spiraling prices as a result of the implementation of changes in policy of the new Congress government, the radical left stepped up their political agitation. A Joint People's Agitation Committee was set up by the various groups.[45] Ageneral strike was called for 6 April. Violent incidents began to occur on the eve of the strike. The Joint People's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute 'lights out' in the capital, and violence erupted outsideBir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the 'lights out'. At dawn on 6 April, clashes between strike activists and police, outside a police station in Pulchowk,Lalitpur, which left two activists dead. Later in the day, a mass rally of the Agitation Committee atTundikhel in the capitalKathmandu was attacked by police forces. As a result, riots broke out and theNepal Telecommunications building was set on fire; police opened fire at the crowd, killing several persons. The Human Rights Organisation of Nepal estimated that 14 persons, including several onlookers, had been killed in police firing.[46]
When promised land reforms failed to appear, people in some districts started to organize to enact their own land reform and to gain some power over their lives in the face of usurious landlords. However, this movement was repressed by the Nepali government, in "Operation Romeo" and "Operation Kilo Sera II", which took the lives of many of the leading activists of the struggle. As a result, many witnesses to this repression became radicalized.
In March 1997, theCommunist Party of Nepal (Maoist) started a bid to replace the parliamentary monarchy with a new people's democratic republic, through a Maoist revolutionary strategy known as thepeople's war, which led to theNepalese Civil War. Led by Dr.Baburam Bhattarai andPushpa Kamal Dahal (also known as "Prachanda"), the insurgency began in five districts in Nepal:Rolpa,Rukum,Jajarkot,Gorkha, andSindhuli. The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) established a provisional "people's government" at the district level in several locations.
On 1 June 2001, The Massacre known as 'The royal massacre' occurred in the royal palace killing theKing,Queen,Prince and other people of the family. It is *claimed* that the Prince massacred the family for some claimed reasons. Since the prince was the one surviving, He was declared king but died 2–3 days later and PrinceGyanendra was crowned. Meanwhile, the rebellion escalated, and in October 2002 the king temporarily deposed the government and took complete control of it. A week later he reappointed another government, but the country was still very unstable.
Large parts of Nepal were taken over by the rebellion. The Maoists drove out representatives of parties close to the government, expropriating local "capitalists" and implementing their own development projects. They also ran their own prisons and courts. In addition to coercive measures, the guerrillas gained a foothold because of their popularity with large sectors of Nepalese society, particularly women, untouchables and ethnic minorities. Caste discrimination was abolished, women received equal inheritance rights and forced marriages were prohibited. In addition, the Maoists provided free health care and literacy classes.[47]
In the face of unstable governments and a siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy began to wane. On 1 February 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers, declaring astate of emergency to quash the revolution. Politicians were placed under house arrest, phone and internet lines were cut, and freedom of the press was severely curtailed.
The king's new regime made little progress in his stated aim to suppress the insurgents. Municipal elections in February 2006 were described by the European Union as "a backward step for democracy", as the major partiesboycotted the election and some candidates were forced to run for office by the army.[48] In April 2006strikes and street protests in Kathmandu forced the king to reinstate the parliament.[49] Aseven-party coalition resumed control of the government and stripped the king of most of his powers. On 24 December 2007, seven parties, including the former Maoist rebels and the ruling party, agreed to abolish the monarchy and declare Nepal a federal republic.[50] In theelections held on 10 April 2008, the Maoists secured a simple majority, with the prospect of forming a government to rule the proposed 'Republic of Nepal'.
From 1996 to 2006, the war resulted in approximately 13,000 deaths. According to the NGO Informal Sector Service Centre, 85 per cent of civilian killings are attributable to government actions.[51]
On 28 May 2008, the newly electedConstituent Assembly declared Nepal a federal democratic republic, abolishing the 240-year-old monarchy. The motion for the abolition of the monarchy was carried by a huge majority: out of 564 members present in the assembly, 560 voted for the motion while 4 members voted against it.[52] On 11 June 2008, the deposed King Gyanendra left the palace.[53]Ram Baran Yadav of the Nepali Congress became the firstPresident of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal onJuly 23, 2008. Similarly, the Constituent Assembly elected Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) of theUnified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) as the firstPrime Minister of the republic on 15 August 2008, favoring him overSher Bahadur Deuba of the Nepali Congress.[54]
After failing to draft a constitution before the deadline, the existing Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the government on 28 May 2012 and a new interim government was formed under the premiership of theChief Justice of Nepal,Khil Raj Regmi. In theConstituent Assembly election of November 2013, the Nepali Congress won the largest share of the votes but failed to get a majority. TheCPN (UML) and the Nepali Congress negotiated to form a consensus government, andSushil Koirala of the Nepali Congress was elected as prime minister.[55] TheConstitution of Nepal was finally adopted on 20 September 2015.[56]
On 25 April 2015,a devastating earthquake ofmoment magnitude of 7.8Mw killed nearly 9,000 people and injured nearly 22,000. It was the worst natural disaster to strike the country since the1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake. The earthquake also triggeredan avalanche on Mount Everest, killing 21. Centuries-old buildings including the UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites in the Kathmandu valley were destroyed.A major aftershock occurred on 12 May 2015 at12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.3, killing more than 200 people and over 2,500 were injured by this aftershock, and many were left homeless. These events led to amajor humanitarian crisis which affected the reconstruction after the earthquake.[57]
Minority ethnic groups likeMadhesi andTharu protested vigorously against the constitution which came into effect on 20 September 2015.[58] They pointed out that their concerns had not been addressed and there were few explicit protections for their ethnic groups in the document. At least 56 civilians and 11 police died in clashes over the constitution.[59] In response to the Madhesi protests,India suspended vital supplies to landlocked Nepal, citing insecurity and violence in border areas.[60] The then prime minister of Nepal,KP Sharma Oli, publicly accused India for the blockade calling the act more inhumane than war.[61] India has denied enacting the blockade.[62] The blockade choked imports of not only petroleum, but also medicines and earthquake relief material.[63] The thenUnited Nations Secretary-General,Ban Ki-moon, alleged that the denial of petroleum and medicine to Nepal constituted a violation of human rights, adding to the humanitarian crisis.[64]
In June 2017,Nepali Congress leaderSher Bahadur Deuba was elected the 40th Prime Minister of Nepal, succeeding Prime Minister and Chairman ofCPN (Maoist Centre)Pushpa Kamal Dahal. Deuba had been previously Prime Minister from 1995 to 1997, from 2001 to 2002, and from 2004 to 2005.[65] In November 2017, Nepal had itsfirst general election since the civil war ended and the monarchy was abolished. The main alternatives were centrist Nepali Congress Party and the alliance of former Maoist rebels and theCommunist UML party.[66] The alliance of communists won the election, and UML leaderKhadga Prasad Sharma Oli was sworn in February 2018 as the new Prime Minister. He had previously been Prime Minister since 2015 until 2016.[67]
In March 2018, PresidentBidya Devi Bhandari, the candidate of the then-ruling Left alliance of the CPN-UML and CPN (Maoist Centre), was re-elected for a second term. The presidential post is mainly ceremonial.[68]
In July 2021, Prime Minister Oli was replaced bySher Bahadur Deuba after a constitutional crisis.[69]
In December 2022, former Maoist guerilla chief,Pushpa Kamal Dahal akaPrachanda, became Nepal's new prime minister after thegeneral election.[70]
In March 2023,Ram Chandra Paudel of Nepali Congress waselected as Nepal's third president to succeed Bidya Devi Bhandari.[71]
On 15 July 2024, K. P. Sharma Oli was sworn in as Nepali Prime Minister for fourth time. A new coalition was formed between the Nepali Congress, led by Sher Bahadur Deuba, and UML, led by Oli. The party leaders will take turns as prime ministers for 18 months each until the next general elections in 2027.[72]
In September 2025, a ban on numerous social media platforms was met bywidespread protests that also came to be directed against corruption by ruling politicians. On 9 September, Oli resigned as the prime minister on 9 September 2025.[73] Former chief justiceSushila Karki was sworn in as interim prime minister on 12 September, the first woman in the role.[74]
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{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)249 BCE, Pilgrimage of Asoka to Buddhist holy places; erection of pillars at Lumbini Garden and near a stupa of Konakamana; his visit to Nepal, and foundation of Lalita Patan his daughter Charumati becomes a nun.
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Asoka is also credited with having founded two important cities, Srinagar in Kashmir and Lalita Patan in Nepal.
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