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Mobile was founded as the capital of colonialFrench Louisiana in 1702 and remained a part ofNew France for over 60 years. During 1720, when France warred with Spain, Mobile was on the battlefront, so the capital moved west toBiloxi.[1] In 1763,Britain took control of the colony following theirvictory in the Seven Years' War.[2] During theAmerican Revolutionary War, the Spanish captured Mobile and retained it by the terms of theTreaty of Paris in 1783.
Mobile first became a part of the United States in 1813, when it was captured by American forces and added to theMississippi Territory, then later re-zoned into theAlabama Territory in August 1817. Finally on December 14, 1819, Mobile became part of the new 22nd state,Alabama, one of the earlier states of the U.S. Forty-one years later, Alabama left the Union and joined theConfederate States of America in 1861. It returned in 1865 after theAmerican Civil War.[1][2][3]Mobile had spent decades as French, then British, then Spanish, then American, spanning 160 years, up to theCivil War.
Spanish explorers were sailing into the area ofMobile Bay as early as 1500, with the bay being marked on early Spanish maps as theBahía del Espíritu Santo (Bay of the Holy Spirit). The area was explored in more detail in 1516 byDiego de Miruelo and in 1519 byAlonso Álvarez de Pineda. In 1528,Pánfilo de Narváez traveled through what was likely theMobile Bay area, encountering Native Americans who fled and burned their towns at the approach of the expedition. This response was a prelude to the journeys ofHernando de Soto, more than eleven years later.[4]
Hernando de Soto explored the area of Mobile Bay and beyond in 1540, finding the area inhabited by aMuscogee Native American people. During this expedition, his forces destroyed the fortified town ofMauvila, also spelledMaubila, from which the name Mobile was later derived.[5] The battle withChief Tuscaloosa and his warriors took place somewhere north of the current site of Mobile. The next large expedition was that ofTristán de Luna y Arellano, in his unsuccessful attempt to establish a permanent colony for Spain, nearby atPensacola in 1559–1561.[4]
Although Spain's presence in the area had been sporadic, the French, underPierre Le Moyne d'Iberville from his base atFort Maurepas, established a settlement on theMobile River in 1702. The settlement, then known asFort Louis de la Louisiane, was first established at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff as the first capital of theFrench colony ofLouisiana. It was founded under the direction of d'Iberville by his brother,Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, to establish control over France's Louisiana claims with Bienville having been made governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobile's Roman Catholic parish was established on 20 July 1703, byJean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier,Bishop of Quebec.[6] The parish was the first established on theGulf Coast of the United States.[6] The year 1704 saw the arrival of 23 women, known to history as "casquette girls" to the colony aboard thePélican, along withyellow fever introduced to the ship inHavana.[7] Though most of the "casquette girls" recovered, a large number of the existing colonists and the neighboring Native Americans died from the illness.[7] This early period also saw the arrival of the firstAfricanslaves aboard a French supply ship fromSaint-Domingue.[7] The population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708 yet descending to 178 persons two years later due to disease.[6]
These additional outbreaks of disease and a series of floods caused Bienville to order the town relocated several miles downriver to its present location at the confluence of theMobile River andMobile Bay in 1711. This site had previously been settled five years prior byCharles Rochon, Gilbert Dardenne, Pierre LeBœuf and Claude Parant.[8] A new earth and palisadeFort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time.[9] The colony was an economic loss, so in 1712,Antoine Crozat took over administration of the colony by royal charter for 15 years, pledging a share of profits to the King.[1] The colony boasted a population of 400 persons. In 1713 a new governor was appointed by Crozat,Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, founder ofDetroit.[10] He did not last long, due to allegations of mismanagement and a lack of growth in the colony, and he was recalled to France in 1716. Bienville again took the helm as governor, serving the office for less than a year until the new governor,Jean-Michel de Lepinay, arrived from France.[10] Lepinay, however, did not last long either, due to Crozat's relinquishing control of the colony in 1717 (after just 5 of the 15 years). The administration shifted toJohn Law and hisCompany of the Indies.[10] Bienville found himself once again governor of Louisiana. In 1719, France warred with Spain, and Mobile was on the battlefront, so Bienville decided to move the capital toOld Biloxi, further west.[1][10]
The capital ofLouisiana was moved toBiloxi, (now inMississippi) in 1720,[9] leaving Mobile relegated to the role of military and trading outpost. In 1723 the construction of a new brick fort with a stone foundation began[9] and it was renamedFort Condé in honor ofLouis Henri, Duc de Bourbon andprince of Condé.[11] Mobile remained a major trade center with the Native Americans throughout the French period, leading to the almost universal use ofMobilian Jargon as the simplified trade language with the Native Americans from present-dayFlorida toTexas.[5]
Mobile became a part of the "14th British colony",British West Florida, in 1763, when theTreaty of Paris was signed, ending theFrench and Indian War.
The treaty ceded the Mobile area toGreat Britain, and under British rule the colony flourished asWest Florida. The British renamedFort Condé asFort Charlotte after thequeen consort and re-energized the port. Major exports included timber,naval stores, indigo, hides, rice, pecans, and cattle.
The Spanish captured Mobile during theAmerican Revolutionary War during theBattle of Fort Charlotte in 1780, and retained Mobile by the terms of the war-endingTreaty of Paris in 1783. Mobile was then part of the colonial provinceFlorida Occidental for thirty years, controlled fromPensacola until 1813 when it was captured by American forces (during theWar of 1812) underJames Wilkinson.
The United States and Spain held long, inconclusive negotiations onthe status of West Florida. In the meantime, American settlers, includingLoyalists, had established a foothold in the area and resistedSpanish control, leading to a rebellion in 1810 and the establishment for three months of theRepublic of West Florida. On September 23, 1810, after meetings beginning in June, rebels overcame the Spanish garrison atBaton Rouge and unfurled theBonnie Blue Flag. The Republic of West Florida claimed boundaries that included all territory south of the31st parallel, west of thePerdido River, and east of theMississippi River, not including any territory that had been part of theLouisiana Purchase.
Spain retained its control of theMobile District for a few more years, while theUnited States seized the formerBaton Rouge District in December 1810.
Before theWar of 1812, the Spaniards in Mobile allowed British merchants to sell arms and supplies to the Indians defend their lands against encroaching settlers who had begun to build on part of present-day Alabama. During the course of the war, GeneralJames Wilkinson took a force of American troops from New Orleans to capture Mobile. The Spanish capitulated in April 1813 and theStars and Stripes of the United States was raised for the first time over the Mobile area as it was added to the existingMississippi Territory.[12]
A British attempt commanded by CaptainHenry Percy in September 1814 to takeFort Bowyer on Mobile Bay was repulsed by American forces. A subsequent British attack in February 1815 was successful, resulting in the surrender of the fort. The War of 1812 ended before an attack on the settlement of Mobile, across the bay, could be conducted.
Within 4 years, in March 1817, the U.S. state ofMississippi was formed, splitting theMississippi Territory in half, and leaving Mobile, for the next 2 years, as part of the newAlabama Territory. In 1819, after two years as a territory, the US state ofAlabama was formed, converting theAlabama Territory into a full American state.
The cotton boom of the early 19th century brought an explosion of commerce to what had been a sleepy frontier town. For almost the next half century, Mobile enjoyed prosperity as the second largest international seaport on theGulf Coast, afterNew Orleans. Progress was based upon cotton, shipped downriver byflatboat orsteamboat from plantation slave fields inMississippi andAlabama.[13] A fire in October 1827 destroyed most of the old city from theMobile River to Saint Emanuel Street and from Saint Francis toGovernment Street.[14] The city experienced another fire in 1839 that burned part of city between Conti and Government Street from Royal to Saint Emanuel Street and also both sides of Dauphin to Franklin Street.[14] Despite these setbacks, Mobile was one of the four busiest ports in the US by the 1850s. The wealth created by this trade brought the city to a cultural high point. Mobile became known throughout the country and the world.
In another note of differentiation between the somewhat cosmopolitan port and the hinterlands of predominantly Protestant Alabama, Mobile was declared adiocese of the Roman Catholic Church in this same period. What would become known asMcGill-Toolen Catholic High School was also established during this time. In 1830, BishopMichael Portier foundedSpring Hill College, one of the oldest Catholic schools in the country. Control of the college was assumed by theJesuit Order in 1847.
In 1860,Clotilda, the last known ship to arrive in the Americas with a cargo of slaves, was abandoned by its captain near Mobile. A number of these slaves later formed their own community on the banks of the Mobile River after theAmerican Civil War, which became known asAfricatown. The inhabitants of this community retained their African customs and language well into the 20th century.
Mobile grew substantially in the period leading up to the Civil War, when theConfederates heavily fortified it. Union naval forces established ablockade under the command ofAdmiralDavid Farragut. The Confederates countered by constructing blockade-runners: fast, shallow-draft, low-slung ships that could either outrun or evade the blockaders, maintaining a trickle of trade in and out of Mobile. Also, theHunley, the first submarine to sink an enemy vessel in combat, was built and tested in Mobile.
In August 1864 Farragut's ships fought their way pastFort Gaines andFort Morgan guarding the mouth of Mobile Bay and defeated a small force of wooden Confederate gunboats and the ironcladCSS Tennessee, in the famousBattle of Mobile Bay. It is here that Farragut is alleged to have uttered his famous "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead" quote after theUSS Tecumseh hit a Confederate mine and sank. TheTecumseh rests in Mobile Bay to this day. The city of Mobile later surrendered to the Union army in order to avoid destruction. Ironically, on May 25, 1865, weeks afterJefferson Davis had dissolved the Confederacy, an ammunition depot explosion, termed the greatMobile magazine explosion, killed some 300 people and destroyed a significant portion of the city.
The aftermath of the war left Mobile with a spirit of governmental and economic caution that would limit it for a large part of the next century.[15] GeneralChristopher Columbus Andrews of theUnited States Army was in charge of Mobile in late 1865 and early 1866, he issued an order that in all courts and judicial proceedings in the District of Mobile that African-Americans should have the same standing as whites.[16] GeneralPope was put in charge of the area next. GeneralPope declared all offices in Mobile vacant and filled them with his own appointees, most of whom were African-American. This included appointing large numbers of African-Americans who had served in theUnited States Army during the war as policemen in Mobile. He declared all offices in Mobile vacant and filled them with his own appointees, most of whom were African-American. This included appointing large numbers of African-Americans who had served in theUnited States Army during the war as policemen in Mobile.[16] While GeneralPope was in charge,Pennsylvania congressmanWilliam D. Kelley, known as a so-called "radical Republican" because he supported equal rights for African-Americans came to Mobile to give a speech. He denounced slavery as "satanic" and advocated equal rights for African-Americans, in response a lynch mob formed and a riot ensued.[17] GeneralPope appointed Gustavus Horton to be the mayor of Mobile during the time until elections could be held. Horton was from Massachusetts and was considered to be a "radical" by local whites because he enforced equal rights for Mobile'sAfrican-American population.[16]Brevetbrigadier generalWillard Warner was appointed as collector of customs in Mobile, serving in this position from July 1871 until February 1872. ColonelGeorge E. Spencer of New York had been the leader of the1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment during the war, this was a regiment of roughly 2,000 whiteSouthern Unionists during the war who fought alongside of GeneralWilliam Tecumseh Sherman during his campaign inGeorgia,Spencer representedAlabama in theSenate as aRepublican from 1868 until 1879, he made numerous visits to Mobile during this time.
The last quarter of the 19th century in Mobile was a time of turmoil. The government was controlled byRepublicans afterReconstruction was instituted byCongress in May 1867. Many of these politicians instituted policies that caused the disenfranchisedDemocrats to become embittered. In 1874, Democrats around the state used violence and extreme measures to keep African Americans and non-Democratic voters from participating in the November election. Election day in Mobile saw armed gangs roaming the streets and mobs of people surrounding the polling places to scare any non-Democrats away.[18]
The decline of the city continued under the Democrats. By 1875 the city was more than $5 million in debt and could not even pay the interest on the loans. This debt had been accruing since the 1830s. A game of political maneuvering continued to be played between rival factions as the city bordered on bankruptcy. In 1879 the city charter was repealed by the state legislature, abolishing the "City of Mobile" and replacing it with three city commissioners appointed by the Alabama governor. The commissioners were charged with governing the new "Port of Mobile" and reducing the city's debt. The debt problem would not be settled until the last note was paid in 1906.[18]
Overall, the early 20th century was a time of significant growth and change for Mobile, Alabama, as the city expanded economically, culturally, and socially. The population grew from about 40,000 in 1900 to over 60,000 by 1920. The city becoming a hub for shipping, manufacturing, and commerce. Key industries included lumber, textiles, shipbuilding and steel. The city received $3 million in federal grants for harbor improvements, which drastically deepened the shipping channels in the harbor. The construction of new railroads and the expansion of the port allowed for greater connectivity and facilitated the growth of the city's economy as a hub for the region. New public schools were built especially to meet the soaring demand for a high school education. High society promoted the newMobile Symphony Orchestra and theSaenger Theatre.[19]
Racial tensions remained high. In 1902 the city government passed Mobile's firstsegregation ordinance, one that segregated the city streetcars. Mobile's African American population responded to this with a two-month boycott which was ultimately unsuccessful. After this, Mobile's de facto segregation was increasingly replaced with legislated segregation.[19]John L. LeFlore emerged as a leader of African Americans in the 1920s.[20][page needed]
The economy flourished in the 1920s, but suffered severely in the Great Depression after 1929. The 1920s and 1930s saw Jazz music achieve wide popularity inside and outside the Black community. Many clubs and venues gave people an opportunity to hear live music. Mardi Gras continued to be an important part of the city's culture, with elaborate parades and celebrations. However, the 1920s and 1930s were also a challenging time for Mobile and the rest of the country. The Great Depression hit the city hard, leading to high levels of unemployment and poverty. The city also experienced racial tensions, with segregation and discrimination affecting many aspects of daily life.[19]
Mobile had $522 million in contracts for World War II combat equipment, but not nearly enough residents to do the work. Workers flocked in from rural areas, especially to the shipyards and to theBrookley Army Air Field.[21] Between 1940 and 1943, over 89,000 people moved into Mobile to work for war effort industries. Mobile was one of eighteen U.S. cities producingLiberty ships at itsAlabama Drydock and Shipbuilding Company to support the war effort by producing ships faster than the German U-boats could sink them.Gulf Shipbuilding Corporation, a subsidiary ofWaterman Steamship Corporation, focused on buildingfreighters,Fletcher-class destroyers, andminesweepers.[21] the Gulf Coast Air Depot was responsible for overhauling and repairing military aircraft. It employed over 15,000 workers at its peak. The Air Force bought the municipal airport, Bates Field, and there developed the Brookley Army Air Field, later to become the Brookley Air Force Base. Brookley quickly became the area's largest employer. In the mid-1960s the Air Force Base was closed due to a Department of Defense "base realignment" and the airport returned to the city. Today, it is an aerospace and industrial site known as theBrookley Aeroplex.[21][22][23]
During the war, the phenomenal influx of workers created a huge housing shortage. Citizens rented out extra rooms and also converted porches, garages and even chicken coops into rentals. Several federal housing projects were quickly built to house the new maritime and Air Force workers. Several of these are still to be found, notably the community of Birdville. "Thomas James Place" was the proper name for Birdville which was built just outside Brookley Air Force Base to provide relief for the housing shortage. The development consisted of a series of interwoven curving concrete streets named after various birds, hence the nickname Birdville.[21][24]
By 1956, Mobile's square mileage had tripled to accommodate growth. The Brookley Air Force Base closure in the mid-1960s sent economic tremors through the area which took many years to absorb. Also in the post-war period, thepulp and paper industry became a major industry in Mobile.Scott Paper Company andInternational Paper combined to become one of the area's largest workforces.
Legal racial segregation was ended by congressional passage of theCivil Rights Act of 1964. Mobile had been more tolerant and racially accommodating than many otherSouthern cities, with the police force and one local college becoming integrated in the 1950s and the voluntary desegregation of buses and lunchcounters by 1963, but schools and many other institutions had remained segregated. In 1963, three African-American students filed a suit against the Mobile County School Board for being denied admission toMurphy High School. The federal district court ordered that they be admitted for the 1964 school year, as it had been ten years since the US Supreme Court ruling inBrown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.[25] In 1964, theUniversity of South Alabama opened as an integrated college, planned as such from its inception in 1956.
Mobile's city government was changed in 1985 from three city commissioners electedat-large to a mayor and city-council form with seven members elected from single-member districts, following a court challenge by African-American residents. InBolden v. City of Mobile the federal district court ruled that the city commission form was discriminatory in intent, with the result of substantially diluting the African-American vote. In the years after passage of theVoting Rights Act of 1965, African Americans had not been able to elect any candidates of their choice to the city commission.[26]
Racial equality and justice continued to be an issue on the individual level in Mobile.[26] In 1981,Michael Donald was abducted and lynched byKu Klux Klan members on Herndon Avenue.[26] The two perpetrators were both convicted of murder, with one sentenced to life in prison and the other sentenced to death and executed in 1997. A subsequent wrongful death lawsuit was filed by theSouthern Poverty Law Center on behalf of Michael Donald's mother against theUnited Klans of America. The seven million dollar decision against the Klans—returned, notably, by anall-white jury—effectively put the Ku Klux Klan out of business in Alabama.[26] A fatal police shooting of an African-American man in 1992 sparked violence and unrest in Mobile, leading to the formation of a Human Relations Commission by the city in 1994.[26]
Hurricane Frederic, which struck the area on September 12, 1979, caused severe damage in Mobile. Many residents were without power, water, telephone and basic necessities for weeks, but only one death was recorded. Relief funding following Frederic provided an economic boom in addition to growth in the 1980s, vastly improving Mobile's overall economic picture.
Beginning in the late 1980s, the city council and mayor Mike Dow began an effort termed the "String of Pearls Initiative" to make Mobile into a competitive, urban city.[27] Numerous new facilities and projects were built around the city; the government encouraged the restoration of hundreds of historic downtown buildings and homes.[27] Violent crime was reduced by 50%, and the city and county leaders worked to attract new business ventures to the area.[28] The effort continues into the present with new city government leadership.[28]
Shipbuilding began to make a major comeback in Mobile with the founding in 1999 ofAustal USA, a joint venture of Australian shipbuilder,Austal, and Bender Shipbuilding.[29]
Mobile received moderate damage fromHurricane Ivan on 16 September 2004.[30] Mobile received damage again fromHurricane Katrina on 29 August 2005. A storm surge of 11.45 feet (3.49 m) damaged eastern sections of Mobile and caused extensive flooding downtown.[31] Mobilians elected their first African American mayor,Sam Jones, in September, 2005.[32] Another landmark was added to Mobile's skyline in 2007 with the completion of theRSA Battle House Tower, the tallest skyscraper in the state. In January, 2008, the city hired EDSA, anurban design firm, to create a new comprehensive master plan for the downtown area and surrounding neighborhoods. The planning area is bordered on the east by the Mobile River, to the south by Interstate 10 and Duval Street, to the west by Houston Street and to the north by Three Mile Creek and the neighborhoods north of Martin Luther King Avenue.[33]
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