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TheHistory of Madagascar started from the ancientsupercontinent ofPangaea, containing amongst others theAfrican continent and theIndian subcontinent, and by the island's late colonization by human settlers fromSouth Borneo,Indonesia and from East Africa.[1][2][3]These two factors facilitated the evolution and survival of thousands ofendemic plant and animal species, some of which have gone extinct or are currently threatened with extinction.Trade in the Indian Ocean at the time of first colonization of Madagascar was dominated by Indonesian ships, probably ofBorobudur ship andK'un-lun po types.[4][5]
Over two thousand years, the island has received waves of settlers of diverse origins, primarilyAustronesian andBantu.[6] Centuries of intermarriages between both groups created theMalagasy people, who are roughly an equal mixture of both groups. They speakMalagasy, anAustronesian language with Bantu, French and Arabic influences.[7][8][9][10]
By theMiddle Ages, over a dozen distinct ethnic identities had emerged on the island, typified by rule under a local chieftain. Some communities, such as theSakalava,Merina andBetsimisaraka, were unified by leaders who established kingdoms, which gained wealth and power through commerce with Europeans and Arabs. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, pirate activity in the coastal areas ofMadagascar was common. The Sakalava and Merina kingdoms in particular exploited European trade to strengthen the power of their kingdoms, trading Malagasy slaves for European firearms and other goods. Beginning in the early 19th century, theBritish andFrench competed for influence in Madagascar.
By the turn of the 19th century, KingAndrianampoinimerina had reunited the highly populousKingdom of Imerina in the central highlands, with its capital atAntananarivo. His sonRadama I the Great expanded its authority to the island's other polities and was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized by foreign states as the ruler of the greaterMerina Kingdom. During the rule ofQueen Ranavalona I (r. 1828–1861), the kingdom was further expanded to encompass most of the island. Madagascar's population is estimated to have declined by half from 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839 from war, disease, slavery, and other violence. She also attempted to eradicate European and Christian influence in the country.[11]
Christianity was made the state religion under QueenRanavalona II (r. 1868–1883). In the 1880s, Britain recognised France's authority on the island. This led in 1890 to theMalagasy Protectorate, which was however rejected by the Kingdom of Madagascar, which led to the twoFranco-Hova Wars which ended with France capturing the capital in September 1895. Conflict continued in theMenalamba rebellion against French rule that was defeated in 1897. The monarchy was dissolved, and the queen was exiled. Following conquest, the French abolishedslavery in 1896, freeing approximately 500,000 slaves.[12]
DuringFrench rule, Malagasy people were required to fulfillcorvée labor on French-run plantations while access to education or skilled positions were limited, although basic services like schools and clinics were extended across the island. Several militant nationalist secret societies emerged in opposition to French rule, of which the most prominent wasVy Vato Sakelika formed in 1913. Many Malagasy were conscripted to fight for France during theFirst (1914–1918) andSecond World Wars (1939–1945), and during the latter Madagascar came underVichy French control before being captured by the British in theBattle of Madagascar and returned toFree French control in 1942. In 1944, Madagascar became an overseas territory with representatives in the FrenchNational Assembly. Militant nationalists launched a largeuprising in 1947 that was brutally suppressed by 1949.
The country gained full independence from France in 1960. Madagascar'sFirst Republic (1960–1972) was established as a democratic system modeled on that of France and led by PresidentPhilibert Tsiranana. Popular unrest led to the socialistDemocratic Republic of Madagascar under AdmiralDidier Ratsiraka (1975–1992) distinguished byeconomic isolationism andpolitical alliances with pro-Soviet states. By 1992, free and fair multiparty elections were held, ushering in the democraticThird Republic (1992–2009). Under the new constitution, the Malagasy public elected successive presidentsAlbert Zafy,Didier Ratsiraka, andMarc Ravalomanana. This latter was ousted in the2009 Malagasy political crisis by a popular movement under the leadership ofAndry Rajoelina.Elections were held on December 20, 2013, to elect a new president and return the country to constitutional governance.
The earliest unambiguous evidence of continuous human presence in Madagascar was found at Andavakoera and dates to 490 CE,[13] and there is no archaeological evidence for human occupation in the highlands until around 1200. However, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits.
In 2009, archaeological excavations at Christmas River (south-central Madagascar) by Pat Wright and James Hansford located a purported elephant birdkill site, with bones showing human cut marks. These were dated to 8,500 BCE, but as yet there is no indication as to the identity of the hunters.[14][15]Archaeological finds such as cut marks on bones found in the northwest and stone tools in the northeast indicate that Madagascar was visited by foragers around 2000 BCE.[16][17]
There is potential evidence in the form of a cutmarkedsubfossil lemur bone from a palaeontological site, Taolambiby, in the southwest. One date was obtained, calibrated 530 to 300 BC (Godfrey & Jungers 2003). The cutmarking looks plausible, but there is a potential problem of old carbon from the limestone landscape compromising the date, and there are no associated artifacts or archaeological sites in the vicinity. Nearly contemporaneous potential evidence comes fromcannabis orhumulus pollen which occurs in a pollen column from the central highlands at an interpolated date of c. 2200Before Present (BP).[18] There is a hypothesis that cannabis may have reached Africa 3000 years ago.
Necho II's Phoenician expedition c. 595 BCE circumnavigated Africa but did not see Madagascar when passing through theMozambique Channel, as it stayed within sight of the African mainland. The island was likely uninhabited.[19]
Finally, a cutmarked pygmy hippo bone from Ambolisatra has been dated and calibrated to between 60 BC and 130 AD (2 SDs), but it is from a coastal swamp without indications of settlement in a heavily karstic region. Moreover, a similar bone from the same collection from a nearby site gave two widely divergent dates of 2020 and 3495 BC (MacPhee & Burney 1991). Transient visits to Madagascar that did not result in enduring settlement cannot be ruled out, and may have left some traces.[20]
Factual information about the peopling of Madagascar remains incomplete, but much recent multidisciplinary research and work inarchaeology,[21]genetics,[22]linguistics,[23][24][25] and history[26][27][28][29] confirms that the Malagasy people were originally and overwhelminglyAustronesian peoples native to theSunda Islands. They probably arrived on the west coast of Madagascar withoutrigger canoes (waka) at the beginning of our era or as much as 300 years sooner according to archaeologists,[30] and perhaps even earlier under certain geneticists' assumptions.[31] On the basis of plant cultigens, Blench proposed the migrations occurred "at the earliest century BCE".[32]: 432 Archaeological work of Ardika and Bellwood suggests migration between 500 and 200 BCE.[33][34]
The Borobudur Ship Expedition in 2003–2004 confirmed scholars' ideas that ships from ancient Indonesia may have reached Madagascar and the West African coast for trade as early as the 8th century.Samudra Raksa, a traditionalBorobudur ship with outriggers, was reconstructed and sailed in this expedition fromJakarta to Madagascar andGhana.[35] As for the ancient route, one possibility is that Indonesian Austronesians came directly across the Indian Ocean fromJava to Madagascar. It is likely that they went through theMaldives, where evidence of old Indonesian boat design and fishing technology persists until the present.[36] TheMalagasy language originated from the SoutheastBarito language, and theMa'anyan language is its closest relative, with numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords.[37][38] It is known thatMa'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves byMalay andJavanese people in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD.[39][40] These pioneers are known in the Malagasy oral tradition as theNtaolo, fromProto-Malayo-Polynesian*tau-ulu, literally 'first men', from*tau, 'man', and*ulu, 'head; first; origin, beginning.[41] It is likely that those ancient people called themselves *va-waka, "the canoe people" from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian*va, 'people', and*waka 'canoe'. Today the termvahoaka means 'people' in Malagasy.
The Southeast Asian origin of the first Malagasy people explains certain features common among the Malagasy, for instance, theepicanthic fold common among all Malagasy, regardless of coastal or highlands origin or skin color. This original population (vahoaka ntaolo) can be called the "proto-Malagasy". They are the source of:
As for the cause of the arrival of these Austronesians, the history of the Indian Ocean from the early first millennium remains poorly understood. Madagascar may have played an important role in the trade of spices (especiallycinnamon andcassia) and timber between Southeast Asia and the Middle East, directly or through the African coast and Madagascar.[citation needed]
The first known concentrated population of human settlers emerged along the southeastern coast of the island, although the first landfall may have been made on the northern coast.[11] Upon arrival, early settlers practicedtavy (slash-and-burn agriculture) to clear the virgin coastalrainforests for the cultivation of their crops.[45] The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, includinggiant lemurs,elephant birds,giant fossa and theMalagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting andhabitat destruction.[46]
By 600, groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central highlands (Imerina), where they particularly plantedtaro (saonjo) and probably rice (vary). TheseVahoaka Ntaolo, hunters-gatherers and farmers, who decided to settle "in the forest", especially in the forests of the central highlands are known by the tradition[47] as theVazimba (from*ba/va-yimba- 'those of the forest', from*yimba- 'forest' in Proto–Southeast Barito, todaybarimba ororang rimba in Malay[48]). Rafandrana, an ancestor of theMerina royal dynasty, for example, is known to have been a Vazimba.Rafohy andRangita, the two founding queens of the Merina royalty, were also called Vazimbas.[47]
On the other side, the fishermen who, from the beginning, remained on the southwestern coast (probably the coasts of the first landing) were, according to the linguists, probably originally called theVezo (from*ba/va/be/ve-jau – "those of the coast", borrowed from Proto-Malayo-Javanese, todayveju in Bugis,bejau in Malay, andbajo in Javanese[25]), which today is still the name of a Southwestern tribe.
After the arrival of the newcomers (see below), as growing population density necessitated higher crop yields, irrigated rice paddies emerged inBetsileo country by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout the central highlands a century later.[49]Zebu were introduced around 1000 byBantu-speaking migrants from theAfrican Great Lakes region (see below), who maintained large herds. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the region from a forest ecosystem to barren grassland by the 17th century.[50]
By the mid-first millennium (ca 700) until about 1500, the inner Vazimbas as much as the coastal Vezos clans welcomed new visitors or immigrants. These goods and/or slave traders came from the Middle East (Shirazi Persians, Omani Arabs, Arabized Jews), Africa (Swahilis), and from Asia (Gujaratis, Malays, Javanese, Bugis). They were sometimes integrated within the coastal Vezos and the inner Vazimbas clans.[51]
The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century whenOmanis established trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as thesorabe alphabet), Arab astrology and other cultural elements.[52] During this early period, Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the East African coast that gave Africa a trade route to theSilk Road and served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships. There is evidence thatBantu orSwahili sailors or traders may have begun sailing to the western shores of Madagascar as early as around the 6th and 7th century.[53]
According to the traditions of some Malagasy peoples, the first Bantus and Arabs to settle in Madagascar came asrefugees from thecivil wars that followed the death ofMuhammad in 632.[54]Beginning in the 10th or 11th century,Arabic andZanzibarislavers worked their way down theSwahili coast in theirdhows and established settlements on the west coast of Madagascar. Notably they included theZafiraminia, traditional ancestors of theAntemoro,Antanosy and other east coast ethnicities. The last wave of Arab immigrants, the Antalaotra, immigrated from Swahili colonies. They settled the northwest of the island (theMahajanga area) and introduced, for the first time,Islam to Madagascar.[54]
Arab immigrants, though few in number compared to the native Austronesians and Bantus, nevertheless left a lasting impression. The Malagasy names for seasons, months, days, and coins in certain regions come from Arabic origins,[55][56] as do cultural features such as the practice ofcircumcision, the communal grain-pool, and different forms of salutation (such assalama).
According to oral tradition,[57] new Austronesian clans (Malays,Javanese,Bugis, andOrang Laut),[58] historically referred to in general, regardless of their native island, as the "Hova"[47] (from Old Bugisuwa, "commoner") landed in the north-west and east coast of the island. Adelaar's observations of Old Malay (Sanskritised), Old Javanese (Sanskritised) and Old Bugis borrowings in the initial Proto-Southeast-Barito language indicate that the first Hova waves came probably in the 7th century at the earliest.[59] Marre and Dahl pointed out that the number of Sanskrit words in Malagasy is very limited compared with the large number now found in Indonesian languages, which means that the Indonesian settlers must have come at an early stage of Hindu influence, that is ca. 400 AD.[60]
The Hova were probably derived from Indonesianthalassocracies. Their leaders were known as thediana in the Southeast andandriana orraondriana in the Center and the West[47][61][62] (from(ra)-hadi-an, "lord" or "master" in Old Javanese,[24] modern Javaneseraden, also found in the Bugis noble titleandi and theTagalog word for "king"hari). They for the most part allied with Vazimba clans:[63][64]
With the arrival of Islam, Persian and Arab traders soon supplanted the Indonesians on the coast of Africa and eventually extended their control over theComoro Islands and parts of the coast of Madagascar. Meanwhile, with competition in the new joint naval powers ofSong China andChola South India, the thalassocracies of Indonesia were in rapid decline, though the Portuguese still encountered Javanese sailors in Madagascar in the sixteenth century.
There is archaeological evidence thatBantu peoples, agro-pastoralists from East Africa, may have begun migrating to the island as early as the 6th and 7th centuries.[53] Other historical and archaeological records suggest that some of the Bantus were descendants ofSwahili sailors and merchants who useddhows to traverse the seas to the western shores of Madagascar.[66] Finally, some sources theorize that during the Middle Ages, Arab, Persian and Neo-Austronesian slave-traders[51] brought Bantu people to Madagascar, transported by Swahili merchants to feed foreign demand for slaves.[67] Years of intermarriages created theMalagasy peoples, who primarily speakMalagasy, an Austronesian language withBantu influences.[68] There are consequently many (Proto-)Swahili borrowings in the initial Proto-SEB Malagasy language.[69] Thissubstratum is especially significantly present in the domestic and agricultural vocabulary (e.g.omby oraombe, "beef", from Swahiling'ombe;tongolo "onion" from Swahilikitunguu; Malagasynongo "pot" fromnunggu in Swahili[24]).
Europe knew of Madagascar through Arab sources; thusThe Travels of Marco Polo claimed that "the inhabitants are Saracens, or followers of the law of Mohammed", without mentioning other inhabitants. Other than its size and location, everything about the island in the book describes southeastern Africa, not Madagascar. European contact began on 10 August 1500, when thePortuguese sea captainDiogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India.[70][19] The Portuguese traded with the islanders and named the islandSão Lourenço (Saint Lawrence). In 1666,François Caron, the director general of the newly formedLouis XIV's East India Company, sailed to Madagascar.[71] The company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon (nowRéunion) andIsle de France (nowMauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast. OnNosy Borah, a small island 12 miles (19 km) off the northeastern coast of Madagascar, Captain Misson and his pirate crew allegedly founded the famouspirate utopia ofLibertatia in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favourite haunt for pirates. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among themRobert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century.[72] Sailors sometimes called Madagascar "Island of the Moon".[73]
By the 15th century, Europeans had wrested control of thespice trade from the Muslims. They did this by bypassing the Middle East and sending their cargo ships around theCape of Good Hope to India. The Portuguese marinerDiogo Dias became the first European to set foot on Madagascar when his ship, bound for India, blew off course in 1500. In the ensuing 200 years, the English and French tried (and failed) to establish settlements on the island.
Fever, dysentery, hostile Malagasy, and the trying arid climate of southern Madagascar soon terminated the English settlement nearToliara in 1646. Another English settlement in the north in Île Sainte-Marie came to an end in 1649. The French colony atTôlanaro (Fort Dauphin) fared a little better: it lasted thirty years. On Christmas night 1672, local Antanosy tribesmen, perhaps angry because fourteen French soldiers in the fort had recently divorced their Malagasy wives to marry fourteen French orphan-women sent out to the colony, massacred the fourteen grooms and thirteen of the fourteen brides. The Antanosy then besieged the stockade at Tôlanaro for eighteen months. A ship of the French East India Company rescued the surviving thirty men and one widow in 1674.
In 1665,François Caron, the Director General of the newly formed Louis XIV's East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to found a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Île-de-France (today'sRéunion andMauritius respectively). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast.[55]
Between 1680 and 1725, Madagascar became apirate stronghold. Many unfortunate sailors became shipwrecked and stranded on the island. Those who survived settled among the natives, or more often, found French or English colonies on the island, or even pirate havens, and thus became pirates themselves. One such case, that of Robert Drury,[74]resulted in a journal giving one of the few written depictions of southern Madagascar in the 18th century.
Notable pirates, includingWilliam Kidd,Henry Every,John Bowen, andThomas Tew, made Antongil Bay and Nosy Boraha their bases of operations. The pirates plundered merchant ships in the Indian Ocean, theRed Sea, and thePersian Gulf. They deprived Europe-bound ships of their silks, cloth, spices, and jewels. Vessels captured while travelling in the opposite direction (to India) lost their cargo, including coin, gold, and silver. The pirates robbed the Indian cargo ships that traded between ports in the Indian Ocean as well as ships commissioned by the East India Companies of France, England, and the Netherlands. The pilgrim fleet sailing betweenSurat in India andMokha on the tip of the Arabian Peninsula was a favourite target, because the wealthy Muslim pilgrims often carried jewels and other finery with them to Mecca. Merchants in India, various ports of Africa, and Réunion showed willingness tofence the pirates' stolen goods. The low-paid seamen who manned merchant ships in the Indian Ocean hardly put up a fight, seeing as they had little reason or motivation to risk their lives. The pirates often recruited crewmen from the ships they plundered.
With regard to piracy in Malagasy waters, note the (semi-)legendary accounts of the alleged pirate-state of Libertalia.
Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, certain Malagasy tribes occasionally waged wars to capture and enslave prisoners. They either sold the slaves to Arab traders or kept them on-hand as laborers. Following the arrival of European slavers, human slaves became more valuable, and the coastal tribes of Madagascar took to warring with each other to obtain prisoners for the lucrative slave-trade. Instead of spears and cutlasses, the tribesmen fought with muskets, musket balls, and gunpowder that they obtained from the Europeans, conducting fierce and brutal wars. On account of their relationship to the pirates, theBetsimisaraka in eastern Madagascar had more firearms than anyone else. They overpowered their neighbors, theAntankarana andTsimihety, and even raided theComoro Islands. As the tribe on the west coast with the most connections to the slave trade, theSakalava people also had access to guns and powder.
Today, the people of Madagascar can be considered as the product of mixing between the first occupants, thevahoaka ntaolo Austronesians (Vazimba andVezo) and those arrived later (Hova neo-Austronesians, Persians, Arabs, Africans and Europeans).
Genotypically, the original Austronesian heritage is more or less evenly distributed throughout the island. Researchers have noticed the "Polynesian motif" everywhere:[75] an old marker of Austronesian populations from before the great immigration to the islands of Polynesia and Melanesia. This fact would require a common starting point among the Proto-Malagasy' vahoaka ntaolo' (who migrated west to Madagascar) and the ancestors of the current Polynesians (who left for the Pacific Islands in the East) between 500 BCE and 1 CE.
Those new immigrants of the Middle Ages were a minority in numbers, yet their cultural contributions, political and technological to the neo-Vazimba and neo-Vezo world substantially altered their society and is the cause of the major upheavals of the sixteenth century that led to the Malagasy feudal era.
On the coasts, the integration of the East Asians, Middle Easterns, Bantus and Portuguese led to the establishment of the kingdoms of theAntakarana,Boina,Menabe andVezo on the west coast, theMahafaly andAntandroy in the south, and theAntesaka,Antambahoaka,Antemoro,Antanala andBetsimisaraka on the east coast.
In the interior, the struggle for hegemony between the different Neo-Vazimba clans of central highlands, called theHova by the coastal Neo-Vezo clans, led to the creation of theMerina,Betsileo,Bezanozano,Sihanaka,Tsimihety andBara kingdoms.
The birth of these kingdoms/tribes essentially altered the political structure of the ancient world of the Vahoaka Ntaolo, but for the most part the common language, customs, traditions, religion and economy was preserved.
Among the Central Kingdoms, the most important were theBetsileo kingdoms (Fandriana, Fisakana, Manandriana, Isandra) to the south, and theMerina kingdoms to the north. These were definitively unified in the early 19th century byAndrianampoinimerina. His son and successorRadama I (reigning 1810–1828) opened his country to foreign influence. With the support of the British, he extended its authority over much of the island. From 1817, the central Merina kingdoms, Betsileo, Bezanozano, and Sihanaka, unified by Radama I were known to the outside world as theKingdom of Madagascar.
The island's West clan chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbors, first with Arab,Persian andSomali traders who connected Madagascar with East Africa, the Middle East and India, and later with European slave traders.[76] The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs adopted the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and expanded their kingdoms. They took on divine status, and new nobility and artisan classes were created.[77] Madagascar functioned as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such asSofala,Kilwa,Mombasa andZanzibar. By the Middle Ages, largechiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were theBetsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and theSakalava chiefdoms of theMenabe (centered in what is now the town ofMorondava) and ofBoina (centered in what is now the provincial capital ofMahajanga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces ofAntsiranana,Mahajanga andToliara.
The island's chiefs began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably East Africa, the Middle East andIndia. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were theSakalava chiefdoms of theMenabe, centred in what is now the town ofMorondava, and ofBoina, centered in what is now the provincial capital ofMahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces ofAntsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara.
According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (nowToliara). They quickly subdued the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance wasAndriamisara; his sonAndriandahifotsy (c. 1610–1658) then extended his authority northwards, past theMangoky River. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga). At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe) and a northern kingdom (Boina). Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.
The Sakalava rulers of this period are known through the memoirs of Europeans such asRobert Drury,James Cook, Barnvelt (1719), Valentyn (1726).
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KingAndrianampoinimerina (1785–1810) and his son,Radama I (1810–1828) succeeded in uniting nearly all of Madagascar underMerina rule. These kings and their successors descended from a line ofancient Merina royalty who ruled the lands ofImerina in the central Highlands of Madagascar since at least the 16th century. Even prior to their eventual domination and unification of the entire island, the political and cultural activities of Merina royalty were to leave an indelible mark on contemporary Malagasy identity.
With the establishment of dominion over the greater part of the Highlands, Andrianampoinimerina became the firstMerina monarch to be considered a king of Madagascar. The island continued to be ruled by a succession of Merina monarchs until the last of them,Ranavalona III, was deposed and exiled to Algeria by French forces who conquered and colonized the island in 1895.
Andrianampoinimerina, grandson of KingAndriambelomasina and successor to his uncle KingAndrianjafy, successfully reunited the fragmented Merina kingdom through a combination of diplomacy, strategic political marriages and successful military campaigns against rival princes. Andrianampoinimerina distinguished himself from other kings by codifying laws and supervising the building of dikes and trenches to increase the amount of arable land around his capital at Antananarivo in a successful bid to end the famines that had wracked Imerina for decades. The king ambitiously proclaimed:Ny ranomasina no valapariako (“the sea is the boundary of my rice-field”), and by the time of his death in 1810 he had conquered the Bara and Betsileo highland tribes, laying the groundwork for expansion of his kingdom to the shores of the island.
Andrianampoinimerina's sonRadama I (Radama the Great) assumed the throne during a turning-point in European history that had repercussions for Madagascar. With the defeat ofNapoléon in 1814/1815, the balance of power in Europe and overseas shifted inBritain's favor. The British, eager to exert control over the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, had captured the islands ofRéunion andMauritius from the French in 1810. Although they returned Réunion to France, they kept Mauritius as a naval base which would maintain trade links throughout theBritish Empire. Mauritius's governor, in a bid to woo Madagascar from French control, recognized Radama I as King of Madagascar, a diplomatic maneuver meant to underscore the idea of the sovereignty of the island and thus to preclude claims by any European powers.
Radama I signed treaties with the United Kingdom outlawing the slave trade and admitting Protestant missionaries into Madagascar. As a result of these treaties Protestant missionaries from Britain would spread British influence in Madagascar; while outlawing theslave trade would weaken Réunion's economy by depriving the island of slave laborers for France'ssugarplantations. In return for outlawing the slave trade, Madagascar received what the treaty called "The Equivalent": an annual sum of a thousand dollars in gold, another thousand in silver, stated amounts of gunpowder, flints, and muskets, plus 400 surplusBritish Armyuniforms. The governor of Mauritius also sent military advisers who accompanied and sometimes led Merina soldiers in their battles against the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka. In 1824, having defeated the Betsimisaraka, Radama I declared, "Today, the whole island is mine! Madagascar has but one master." The king died in 1828 while leading his army on a punitive expedition against the Betsimisaraka.
The 33-year reign of QueenRanavalona I, the widow of Radama I, was characterized by an increase in the size of the Kingdom of Madagascar as it conquered neighboring states as well as an effort to maintain the cultural and political sovereignty of Madagascar in the face of increasing foreign influence. The queen repudiated the treaties that Radama I had signed with Britain and, in 1835 after issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar, she expelled British missionaries from the island and began persecuting Christian converts who would not renounce their religion. Malagasy Christians would remember this period asny tany maizina, or "the time when the land was dark".
During her reign, constant warfare, disease, slave labor, and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among the Malagasy population; the population of the island is estimated to have declined by half from 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839.[79]
Unbeknownst to the queen, her son and heir, the crown-prince (the futureRadama II), attended Roman Catholic masses in secret.[citation needed] The young man grew up under the influence of French nationals in Antananarivo. In 1854, he wrote a letter toNapoléon III inviting France to invade and uplift Madagascar.[citation needed] On 28 June 1855 he signed theLambert Charter. This document gave Joseph-François Lambert, an enterprising French businessman who had arrived in Madagascar only three weeks before, the exclusive right to develop all minerals, forests, and unoccupied land in Madagascar in exchange for a 10-percent royalty payable to the Merina monarchy. In years to come, the French would show the Lambert Charter and the prince's letter to Napoléon III to explain the Franco-Hova Wars and the annexation of Madagascar as a colony. In 1857, the queen uncovered a plot by her son (the future Radama II) and French nationals in the capital to remove her from power. She immediately expelled all foreigners from Madagascar, sparing her son. Ranavalona died in 1861.
In his brief two years on the throne, KingRadama II re-opened trade with Mauritius and Réunion, invited Christian missionaries[70] and foreigners to return to Madagascar, and re-instated most of Radama I's reforms. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, andRainivoninahitriniony, the prime minister, engineered a coup d'état in which Radama II was strangled to death.
A council of princes headed byRainilaiarivony approached Rabodo, the widow ofRadama II, the day after the death of her husband. They gave her the conditions under which she could succeed to the throne. These conditions included the suppression oftrial by ordeal as well as the monarchy's defense offreedom of religion. Rabodo, crowned queen on 13 May 1863 under the throne name ofRasoherina, reigned until her death on 1 April 1868.[80]
The Malagasy people remember Queen Rasoherina for sending ambassadors to London and Paris and for prohibitingSunday markets. On 30 June 1865, she signed a treaty with the United Kingdom giving British citizens the right to rent land and property on the island and to have a resident ambassador. With the United States of America she signed a trade agreement that also limited the importation of weapons and the export of cattle. Finally, with France the queen signed a peace between her descendants and the descendants of theEmperor of France.[81] Rasoherina married her prime minister,Rainivoninahitriniony, but public outcry against his involvement in the murder ofRadama II soon forced his resignation and exile toBetsileo country south ofImerina. She then married his brother,Rainilaiarivony, head of the army at the time of Radama II's murder who was promoted to the post of Prime Minister upon the resignation and exile of his older brother. Rainilaiarivony would rule Madagascar from behind the scenes for the remaining 32 years of the Merina monarchy, marrying each of the final three queens of Madagascar in succession.
In 1869, QueenRanavalona II, previously educated by theLondon Missionary Society, underwent baptism into theChurch of England and subsequently made theAnglican faith the officialstate religion of Madagascar.[82]The queen had all thesampy (traditional royal idols) burned in a public display. Catholic and Protestantmissionaries arrived in numbers to build churches and schools. The reign of Queen Ranavalona II proved the high water mark of British influence in Madagascar. British goods and weapons arrived on the island by way ofSouth Africa.
Her public coronation as queen took place on 22 November 1883 and she took the nameRanavalona III. As her first order of business she confirmed the nomination ofRainilaiarivony and his entourage in their positions. She also promised to do away with the French threat.[83]
Angry at the cancellation of theLambert Charter and seeking to restore property seized from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the firstFranco-Hova War (Hova as a name referring to the Merina aristocrats). At the war's end, Madagascar cededAntsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In Europe, meanwhile, European diplomats had worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to establish control over theSultanate of Zanzibar, ceded its rights over the island ofHeligoland toGermany and renounced all claims of influence in Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement spelled the end of the Malagasy political independence.Rainilaiarivony had succeeded in playing the various European powers against one another, but now France could act without fear of British support towards the Malagasies.[citation needed]
In 1895, a Frenchflying column landed inMahajanga (Majunga) and marched by way of theBetsiboka River to the capital,Antananarivo, taking the city's defenders by surprise (they had expected an attack from the much closer east coast). Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died ofmalaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896 theFrench Parliament voted toannex Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family sent into exile inAlgeria.
The kingdom of Madagascar continued its transformation throughout the 19th century from a locally grown monarchy into a modernstate.
Before Radama I the Malagasy language was written in a script known assorabe. In 1820 under the direction ofDavid Jones, a Welsh missionary of the London Missionary Society, Radama I codified the new MalagasyLatin alphabet of 21 letters which replaced the old sorabe alphabet.[84] By 1830 the Bible was the first book written in this new Malagasy Latin alphabet. It is the oldest complete translation of the bible into a sub-Saharan African language.
The United States and the Kingdom of Madagascar concluded a commercial convention in 1867 after which Queen Rasoherina and Prime Minister Rainilaiarivoy exchanged gifts with presidentAndrew Johnson.[85] A treaty of peace, friendship, and commerce was then signed in 1881.[86]
During the reign of Ranavalona I, early attempts at industrialization took place from 1835 under the direction of the FrenchJean Laborde (a survivor of a shipwreck off the east coast), producing soap,porcelain, metal tools and firearms (rifles, cannons, etc.)..
In 1864Antananarivo opened the first hospital and a modern medical school. Two years later appeared the first newspaper. A scientific journal in English (Antananarivo Annual) was released from 1875. In 1894, on the eve of the establishment of colonial rule, the schools of the kingdom, mainly led by theProtestant missions, were attended by over 200,000 students.
In 1750, the ruler of the Kingdom of Betsimisaraka,Bety of Betsimisaraka, ceded the islandNosy Boraha (Île Sainte-Marie) to theKingdom of France. However, in 1752 the French Colonists were massacred when the local population rebelled. France left the settlement abandoned for roughly half a century until returning in 1818.[87]
In 1840Tsiomeko, the ruler ofNosy Be island, accepted French protection in 1840. The French took possession of the island in 1841, and in 1849 an unsuccessful attempt was made to expel them.[88]
In theBerlin Treaty, the British accepted the claims of France to exert its influence on Madagascar, and afterthe first Franco-Hova Wara treaty of alliance between France andMadagascar was signed on 17 December 1885 by QueenRanavalona III, granting France a protectorate over theDiego-Suarez bay and surrounding territory, as well as the islands of Nosy-Be and Île Sainte-Marie.
Disagreements on the implementation of this treaty served as a pretext for the French invasion of 1895, which first met little resistance. The authority of the prime ministerRainilaiarivony, in power since 1864, had become very unpopular with the public.
The British accepted the imposition of a Frenchprotectorate over Madagascar in 1890 in return for recognition of British sovereignty overZanzibar (subsequently part ofTanzania) and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area.[89] The intention of the French was initially to maintain the protectorate in order to control the economy and foreign relations of the island. But later, the outbreak of theMenalamba rebellion and the arrival of GeneralGallieni (responsible for "pacifying" the country) in 1896 led to thecolonization of the island and the exile of the queen toAlgeria.
In 1904–1905 Madagascar was the scene of alarge-scale uprising by various tribes and tribal leaders, among whom Kotavy, a former French corporal who defected to the rebels, filled a preponderant role.[10]
Malagasy troops fought in France,Morocco, andSyria duringWorld War II. Prior to the implementation of theFinal Solution,Nazi Germany had considered theMadagascar Plan, which would have relocatedEuropean Jews to Madagascar. After France fell to the Germans in 1940, theVichy government administered Madagascar until 1942, when British andCommonwealth troops occupied the strategic island in theBattle of Madagascar. The United Kingdom handed over control of the island toFree French Forces in 1943.
In 1948, with French prestige at a low ebb, the French government, headed by Prime MinisterPaul Ramadier of theFrench Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) party, suppressed theMadagascar revolt, a nationalist uprising.[90][91][92][93][94][95]
The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under theLoi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully toward independence. TheMalagasy Republic, proclaimed on 14 October 1958, became an autonomous state within theFrench Community. On 26 March 1960 France agreed to Madagascar becoming fully independent.[96] On 26 June 1960 Madagascar became an independent country andPhilibert Tsiranana became its first president.
Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settlers (orcolons) still in positions of power. Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towardscommunism.[97]
In 1972, protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana had to step down. He handed power to GeneralGabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This régime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with theSoviet Union.[98]
On 5 February 1975, ColonelRichard Ratsimandrava became the President of Madagascar. After six days as head of the country, he died in an assassination while driving from the presidential palace to his home. Political power passed toGilles Andriamahazo.
On 15 June 1975, Lieutenant-CommanderDidier Ratsiraka (who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France.[98] These policies hastened the decline in the Malagasy economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology behind. Ratsiraka's original seven-year term as president continued after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections.[97]
In the 1980s, Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of amarket economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power.[55]
Eventually, opposition, both within and without, forced Ratsiraka to consider his position and in 1992 the country adopted a new and democratic constitution.[98]
The first multi-party elections came in 1993, withAlbert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka.[97] Despite being a strong proponent of a liberal, free-market economy, Zafy ran on a ticket critical of theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) and theWorld Bank. During his presidency the country struggled to implement IMF and World Bank guidelines that were, on the short term, suicidal politically.[99]
As president Zafy was frustrated by the restraints placed upon the powers of his office by the new constitution. His quest for increased executive power put him on a collision course with the parliament led by then prime ministerFrancisque Ravony.[100] Zafy eventually won the power he sought after but sufferedimpeachment at the hands of the disenfranchised parliament in 1996 for violating the constitution by refusing to promulgate specific laws.[101]
The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and unexpectedly resulted in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka.[98]He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF and the World Bank led to widespreadprivatisation.
Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidateMarc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but the incumbent rejected this position. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and violent clashes took place. Ravalomanana claimed that fraud had occurred in the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent gained international recognition, and Ratsiraka had to go into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued activities in Madagascar.[97]
Ravalomanana'sTiako I Madagasikara party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2001 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, to end corruption and to realise the country's potential.[97]Ratsiraka went on trial (in absentia) forembezzlement (the authorities charged him with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and the court sentenced him to ten years'hard labour.[102]
Ravalomanana is credited with improving the country's infrastructure, such as roads, along with making improvements in education and health, but has faced criticism for his lack of progress against poverty;purchasing power is said to have declined during his time in office.[103][104] On 18 November 2006, his plane was forced to divert from Madagascar's capital during a return trip from Europe following reports ofa coup underway in Antananarivo and shooting near the airport;[105] however, this alleged coup attempt was unsuccessful.
Ravalomanana ran for a second term in thepresidential election held on December 3, 2006.[106] According to official results, he won the election with 54.79% of the vote in the first round; his best results were inAntananarivo Province, where he received the support of 75.39% of voters.[107] He was sworn in for his second term on January 19, 2007.[108]
Ravalomanana dissolved the National Assembly in July 2007, prior to the end of its term, following aconstitutional referendum earlier in the year. Ravalomanana said thata new election needed to be held so that the National Assembly would reflect the changes made in this referendum.[109]
He became involved in a political standoff after he closed the TV station belonging toAntananarivo mayorAndry Rajoelina. In January 2009,protests which then turned violent were organized and spearheaded byAndry Rajoelina, the mayor of the capital city ofAntananarivo and a prominent opponent of President Ravalomanana.[110][111]
The situation fundamentally changed on 10 March 2009 when army leaders forced the recently appointed defense secretary to resign (the previous one had decided to resign after the killings by the presidential guard on 7 February 2009). They also announced that they gave the opponents 72 hours to dialogue and find a solution to the crisis before they would take further action. This move came after the leaders of the main military camp had announced a day earlier that they would not execute orders coming from the presidency any more since their duty was to protect the people, and not to oppress them, as groups of the military had done over the last few days.[112][113]
On 16 March 2009, the army seized the presidential palace in the centre of Antananarivo. Ravalomanana was not in the palace at the time.[114] He handed his resignation to the army, which then decided to hand over power to his fierce political rival,Andry Rajoelina. The second round of the postponedpresidential elections was held in December 2013 and the results were announced in January 2014. The winner and the next president wasHery Rajaonarimampianina. He was backed by Rajoelina who led the 2009 coup and still was very influential political figure.[115][116]
In 2018 the first round of thepresidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president Andry Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. He was previously president from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomanana lost the second round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomanana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president.[117][118][119]
In 2019, anepidemic of measles killed 1,200 people.[120]
In 2021, Madagascar'sworst drought in 40 years left more than a million people in southern Madagascar food insecure. This forced thousands of people to leave their homes to search for food.[121][122]
In November 2023,Andry Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of theelection. Turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history.[123]
In June 2025, the Franco-Malagasy Joint Commission will meet. This commission is responsible for deciding on the return of the Scattered Islands to Madagascar.[124]
In September 2025,widespread protests erupted against frequent water and power cuts, causing the deaths of over 20 people. In response, Rajoelina sacked Prime MinisterChristian Ntsay on 29 September 2025.[125][126] He said, without providing evidence, that some politicians were plotting to take advantage of the protests and had considered staging a coup while he was addressing the United Nations.[127] On 12 October, Rajoelina's office said thatan attempt to topple his government was underway; a statement said the situation was under control.[128] However, on 13 October, an opposition lawmaker reported that Rajoelina had fled the country.[129] Rajoelina addressed the nation later that day, saying that he fled "in fear for his life" but remained defiant, saying that he "would not allow Madagascar to be destroyed" and refusing to step down.[130][129] After attempting to dissolve theNational Assembly, he was impeached and removed from office[131] as the military said that they have seized power.[132] On 17 October 2025, ColonelMichael Randrianirina was sworn in as the new president of Madagascar.[133]
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