TheLower Paleolithic era on theKorean Peninsula and inManchuria began roughly half a million years ago.[1][2][3] The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC and theNeolithic period began thereafter, followed by theBronze Age by 2000 BC,[4][5][6][7] and theIron Age around 700 BC. ThePaleolithic people are likely not the direct ancestors of the present Korean people, but their direct ancestors are thought to be the Neolithic People of about 2000 BC.[8]
According to the mythic account recounted in theSamguk yusa (1281), theGojoseon kingdom was founded in northern Korea and southernManchuria in 2333 BC.[9][10][11][12] The first written historical record on Gojoseon can be found from the textGuanzi.[13][14][15][16] TheJin state was formed in southern Korea by the 3rd century BC.[17] In the late 2nd century BC, Gojoseon eventuallyfell to theHan dynasty of China, which led to succeeding warring states, theProto–Three Kingdoms period.[18]
In the late 9th century, Silla was divided into theLater Three Kingdoms (892–936), which ended with the unification byWang Kŏn'sGoryeo dynasty. Meanwhile, Balhae fell after invasions by theKhitan-ledLiao dynasty; fleeing refugees including thelast crown prince emigrated to Goryeo, where he was absorbed into the ruling family, thus unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo.[21][22] During the Goryeo period, laws werecodified, acivil service system was introduced, and culture influenced byBuddhism flourished. However,Mongol invasions in the 13th century brought Goryeo under the influence of theMongol Empire and theYuan dynasty of China until the mid-14th century.[23][24]
In 1392, GeneralYi Seong-gye established theJoseon dynasty (1392–1897) after acoup d'état in 1388 that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty.[25] KingSejong the Great (1418–1450) implemented numerous administrative, social, scientific, and economic reforms, established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty, and personally createdHangul, the Korean alphabet.[26]
After enjoying a period of peace for nearly two centuries, theJoseon dynasty faced foreign invasions from 1592 to 1637. Most notable of these were theJapanese invasions of Korea.[27] The combined force of theMing dynasty of China and the Joseon dynasty (whose naval fleet was successfully led by AdmiralYi Sun-sin) repelled these Japanese invasions, but at a cost to both countries. Henceforth, Joseon gradually became more and moreisolationist and stagnant with frequent internal strifes.
No fossil proven to beHomo erectus has been found in theKorean Peninsula,[29] though a candidate has been reported.[2] Tool-making artifacts from thePaleolithic period have been found in present-dayNorth Hamgyong,South Pyongan,Gyeonggi, and north and southChungcheong provinces,[30] which dates the Paleolithic Age to half a million years ago,[5] though it may have begun as late as 400,000 years ago[1] or as early as 600,000–700,000 years ago.[2][3]
Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged in theMumun pottery period (c. 1500–300 BC).[34]
People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field andpaddy-field agriculture with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500–850 BC). The first societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850–550 BC), and the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550–300 BC). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important in ceremonial and political society after 700 BC. Archeological evidence fromSongguk-ri,Daepyeong,Igeum-dong, and elsewhere indicate that the Mumun era was the first in which chiefdoms rose, expanded, and collapsed. The increasing presence of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BC.[34]
In addition, 73 tombs similar to the ones found in Japan, estimated to date back to Gojoseon (100 BC), have been found in the southern tip of the Korean peninsula, and the discovery ofjar burials, suggest a close relationship with Japan,[35] and Gojoseon, proving that Gojoseon and Yayoi period Japan maintained close relations with one another even during the ancient times.
TheBronze Age in Korea is often held to have begun around 900–800 BC,[5] though the transition to the Bronze Age may have begun as far back as 2300 BC.[6] Bronze daggers, mirrors, jewelry, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly largerdolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula.[36] Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th-century BC.[37] It is believed that by the 4th century BC,iron culture was developing in Korea by northern influence via today'sRussia's Maritime Province.[38][39]
Gojoseon was the firstKorean kingdom, located in the north of the peninsula and Manchuria, later alongside the state ofJin in the south of the peninsula.
The founding legend of Gojoseon, which is recorded in theSamguk yusa (1281) and other medieval Korean books,[40] states that the country was established in 2333 BC byDangun, said to be descended from heaven.[41] While no evidence has been found that supports whatever facts may lie beneath this,[42][43] the account has played an important role in developing Korean national identity.
In the 12th century BC,Gija, a prince from theShang dynasty of China, purportedly foundedGija Joseon. In pre-modern Korea, Gija represented the authenticating presence of Chinese civilization, and until the 20th century, Koreans commonly believed that Dangun bestowed upon Korea its people and basic culture, while Gija gave Korea its high culture—and presumably, standing as a legitimate civilization.[44] However, due to contradicting historical and archaeological evidence, its existence was challenged in the 20th century, and today no longer forms the mainstream understanding of this period.
The historical Gojoseon kingdom was first mentioned in the Chinese record in a text calledGuanzi.[13][14][15] By about the 4th century BC, Gojoseon had developed to the point where its existence was well known in China,[45][46] and around this time, its capital moved toPyongyang.[47][48]
In 108 BC, the ChineseHan dynasty defeatedWiman Joseon and installedfour commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula.[53] Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades, but theLelang Commandery remained as a center of cultural and economic exchange with successive Chinese dynasties for four centuries, until it was conquered byGoguryeo in 313 AD.
TheFour Commanderies of Han, established in the former territory ofGojoseon after the fall of Wiman Joseon.[54] The location of the commanderies has become a controversial topic in Korea in recent years.[55] However, the location of the commanderies is not controversial outside of Korea.[note 1]
Around 300 BC, a state calledJin arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han China and exported artifacts to theYayoi ofJapan.[56][57][58] Around 100 BC, Jin evolved into theSamhan confederacies.[59]
The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period (열국시대,列國時代),[60] is the time before the rise of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, which includedGoguryeo,Silla, andBaekje, and occurred after the fall ofGojoseon. This time period consisted of numerous states that sprang up from the former territories of Gojoseon. Among these states, the largest and most influential wereEastern Buyeo andNorthern Buyeo.
After the fall ofGojoseon,Buyeo arose in today's North Korea and southernManchuria, from about the 2nd century BC to 494 AD. Its remnants were absorbed byGoguryeo in 494, and both Goguryeo andBaekje, two of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, considered themselves its successor.[61]
Although records are sparse and contradictory, it is thought that in 86 BC,Dongbuyeo (Eastern Buyeo) branched out, after which the original Buyeo is sometimes referred to asBukbuyeo (Northern Buyeo).Jolbon Buyeo was the predecessor toGoguryeo, and in 538, Baekje renamed itselfNambuyeo (Southern Buyeo).[62]
Okjeo was a tribal-state that was located in the northernKorean Peninsula, and was established after the fall of Gojoseon. Okjeo had been a part ofGojoseon before its fall. It never became a fully developed kingdom due to the intervention of its neighboring kingdoms. Okjeo became a tributary of Goguryeo, and was eventually annexed into Goguryeo byGwanggaeto the Great in the 5th century.[63]
Dongye (Eastern Ye) was another small kingdom that was situated in the northernKorean Peninsula. Dongye borderedOkjeo, and the two kingdoms faced the same fate of becoming tributaries of the growing empire ofGoguryeo. Dongye was also a former part ofGojoseon before its fall.[64]
Sam-han (삼한;三韓) refers to the three confederacies ofMahan,Jinhan, andByeonhan. The Samhan were located in the southern region of theKorean Peninsula.[65] The Samhan countries were strictly governed by law, with religion playing an important role. Mahan was the largest, consisting of 54 states, and assumed political, economic, and cultural dominance. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of 12 states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. The Samhan were eventually conquered byBaekje,Silla, andGaya in the 4th century.[66]
Goguryeo at its height, in 476 ADPainting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea to theTang court: Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo.Portraits of Periodical Offering, 7th century Tang dynastyKorean (Goguryeo) ambassadors during an audience with KingVarkhuman ofSamarkand. They are identified by the two feathers on top of their head.[67] 648–651 AD,Afrasiab murals, Samarkand.[68][69]
Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC byJumong (posthumously given the royal title Dongmyeongseong).[70] Later,King Taejo centralized the government. Goguryeo was the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism as the state religion in 372, inKing Sosurim's reign.[71][72]
Goguryeo (also spelled asKoguryŏ) was also known as Goryeo (also spelled asKoryŏ), and it eventually became the source of the modern name of Korea.[73]
The 3rd and 4th centuries were characterized by territorial competition with the Chinese and Xianbei, resulting in both losses and gains. Goguryeo initiated theGoguryeo–Wei War by attacking a Chinese fortress in 242 in an attempt to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea.Cao Wei of theThree Kingdoms of China retaliated by invading and destroyingHwando in 244. This forced the king to flee with Cao Wei in pursuit and broke Goguryeo's rule over the Okjeo and Ye, damaging its economy. The king eventually settled in a new capital, and Goguryeo focused on rebuilding and regaining control. In the early 4th century Goguryeo once again attacked the Chinese (nowSima Jin) to cut off their access to Korea and this time succeeded, and soon afterward conquered Lelang and Daifang ending the Chinese presence in Korea. However Goguryeo's expansion led to confrontation with the rising Xianbeis. The Xianbeis devastated Goguryeo's capital in the mid 4th century and the king retreated. Goguryeo eventually regrouped and began striking back in the late 4th century by King Gogukyang, culminating with the conquests of Gwanggaeto the Great.[74][75]
Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 5th century, becoming a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia,[76][77][78][79] whenGwanggaeto the Great and his son,Jangsu, expanded the country into almost all of Manchuria, parts of Inner Mongolia,[80] parts of Russia,[81] and took the present-day city ofSeoul from Baekje.[80] Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto and Jangsu,[82][83][84][85] who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of theThree Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power of the Korean peninsula.[71][80][86] Jangsu's long reign of 79 years saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements.[87]
Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state;[88][89] in addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had manymilitary conflicts with various Chinese dynasties,[90] most notably theGoguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force traditionally said to number over a million men,[note 2] and contributed to theSui dynasty's fall.[91][92][93][94][95]
In 642, the powerful generalYŏn Kaesomun led a coup and gained complete control over Goguryeo. In response,Emperor Taizong of Tang China led acampaign against Goguryeo, but was defeated and retreated.[90][96][97][98] After the death of Taizong, his sonGaozong allied with the Korean kingdom ofSilla and invaded Goguryeo again, but was unable to overcome Goguryeo's stalwart defenses and was defeated in 662.[99][100] However, Yŏn Kaesomun died of natural causes in 666 and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother,[101][102] with his eldest son defecting toTang and his younger brother defecting to Silla.[103] The Tang–Silla alliance mounted a fresh invasion in 667, aided by the defector Yeon Namsaeng, andwas finally able to conquer Goguryeo in 668.[104][105]
After the collapse of Goguryeo, Tang and Silla ended their alliance and fought over control of theKorean Peninsula. Silla succeeded in gaining control over most of the Korean Peninsula, while Tang gained control over Goguryeo's northern territories. However, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo, a Goguryeo general by the name ofDae Jo-yeong founded the Korean-Mohe state ofBalhae and successfully expelled the Tang presence from much of the former Goguryeo territories.
Baekje was founded byOnjo, a Goguryeo prince and the third son of Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, in 18 BC.[106] Baekje and Goguryeo shared founding myths and originated fromBuyeo.[107] TheRecords of the Three Kingdoms mentions Baekje as a member of theMahan confederacy in theHan River basin (near nowSeoul). It expanded into the southwest (Chungcheong andJeolla provinces) of the peninsula and became a significant political and military power. In the process, Baekje came into fierce confrontation with Goguryeo and the Chinese commanderies in the vicinity of its territorial ambitions.
At its peak in the 4th century during the reign ofKing Geunchogo, Baekje absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces ofGyeonggi,Chungcheong, andJeolla, as well as part ofHwanghae andGangwon) to a centralized government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through maritime contacts with theSouthern dynasties during the expansion of its territory.[108]
Baekje was a great maritime power;[109] its nautical skill, which made it thePhoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.[110][111] Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, such asChinese characters,Buddhism, iron-making, advancedpottery, and ceremonial burial to ancientJapan.[79][112][113][114][115][116][117] Other aspects of culture were also transmitted when the Baekje court retreated to Japan after Baekje was conquered by the Silla–Tang alliance.
Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time ofGeunchogo,[118] but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.[119][120][121] Ultimately, Baekje was defeated by a coalition of Silla andTang forces in 660.[122]
Downsized replica of the famous 80-meter-tallpagoda atHwangnyongsa Temple which was destroyed by the MongolsThepagoda ofBunhwangsa temple, 634 AD, which once stood seven to nine stories in height, yet these collapsed to its current state of three stories
According to legend, the kingdom ofSilla began with the unification of six chiefdoms of theJinhan confederacy byPark Hyeokgeose in 57 BC, in the southeastern area of Korea.[123] Its territory included the present-day port city ofBusan, and Silla later emerged as a sea power responsible for destroying Japanese pirates, especially during theUnified Silla period.[124]
Silla artifacts, including unique gold metalwork, show influence from the northern nomadic steppes andIranian peoples and especiallyPersians, with less Chinese influence than are shown by Goguryeo and Baekje.[125] Silla expanded rapidly by occupying theNakdong River basin and uniting the city-states.
By the 2nd century, Silla was a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city-states. Silla gained further power when it annexed theGaya confederacy in 562. Silla often faced pressure from Goguryeo, Baekje and Japan, and at various times allied and warred with Baekje andGoguryeo.
Silla was the smallest and weakest of theThree Kingdoms of Korea, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.[126][127]
In 660, KingMuyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. GeneralKim Yu-shin, aided byTang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved onGoguryeo but were repelled. KingMunmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of Kim, launched another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.[128]
Gold crown and accessories. National Treasure No.138.
Gaya was a confederacy of small kingdoms in theNakdong River valley of southernKorea since AD 42, growing out of theByeonhan confederacy of theSamhan period. Gaya's plains were rich in iron, so export of iron tools was possible and agriculture flourished. In the early centuries, the Confederacy was led byGeumgwan Gaya in theGimhae region. However, its leading power changed toDaegaya in theGoryeong region after the 5th century.
Constantly engaged in war with the three kingdoms surrounding it, Gaya was not developed to form a unified state, and was ultimately absorbed intoSilla in 562.[129]
The term North-South States refers toUnified Silla andBalhae, during the time when Silla controlled the majority of the Korean peninsula while Balhae expanded intoManchuria. During this time, culture and technology significantly advanced, especially in Unified Silla.
After the unification wars, theTang dynasty established outposts in the formerGoguryeo, and began to establish and administer communities inBaekje. Silla attacked Tang forces in Baekje and northern Korea in 671. Tang then invaded Silla in 674 but Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Korean peninsula.[130]
Silla began to experience political troubles in late 8th century. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje establishedLater Baekje. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning theLater Three Kingdoms period.
Unified Silla lasted for 267 years untilKing Gyeongsun surrendered the country toGoryeo in 935, after 992 years and 56 monarchs.[159]
Balhae was founded only thirty years after Goguryeo had fallen, in 698. It was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo byDae Jo-yeong, a former Goguryeo general[160][161] or chief of Sumo Mohe.[162][163][164] Balhae controlled the northern areas of theKorean Peninsula, much of Manchuria (though it didn't occupyLiaodong Peninsula for much of history), and expanded into present-dayRussian Primorsky Krai. It also adopted the culture ofTang dynasty, such as the government structure and geopolitical system.[165]
In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae flourished, especially during the reigns ofKing Mun andKing Seon. Balhae was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".[166] However, Balhae was severely weakened and eventually conquered by theKhitan-ledLiao dynasty in 926.[165] Large numbers of refugees, includingDae Gwang-hyeon, the last crown prince of Balhae, were welcomed by Goryeo.[21][167]Dae Gwang-hyeon was included in the imperial family ofWang Kŏn, bringing a national unification between the two successor nations of Goguryeo.[22]
No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae.Goryeo absorbed some Balhae territory, welcomed between 100,000 and 200,000 Balhae refugees including its Crown PrinceDae Gwang-hyeon, and maintained hostile relations with the Liao for destroying Balhae.[168][169][170][171][172] However, Goryeo's official historical record, theSamguk sagi ("History of the Three Kingdoms"), includes passages on Balhae, but did not include a dynastic history of Balhae. Balhae was first included in Korean history by Goryeo scholar Yi Seung-hyu'sJewang ungi in 1287. The 18th centuryJoseon dynasty historianYu Deuk-gong advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term "North and South States Period" to refer to this era.[165]
The Later Three Kingdoms period (892–936) consisted ofUnified Silla and the revival ofBaekje andGoguryeo, known historiographically as "Later Baekje" and "Later Goguryeo". During the late 9th century, as Silla declined in power and exorbitant taxes were imposed on the people, rebellions erupted nationwide and powerful regional lords rose up against the waning kingdom.[173]
Later Baekje was founded by the generalKyŏn Hwŏn in 892, and its capital was established in Wansanju (modernJeonju). The kingdom was based in the southwestern regions in the former territories of Baekje. In 927, Later Baekje attackedGyeongju, the capital of Unified Silla, and placed a puppet on the throne. Eventually, Kyŏn Hwŏn was ousted by his sons due to a succession dispute and escaped to Goryeo, where he served as a general in the conquest of the kingdom he personally founded.[174]
Later Goguryeo was founded by the Buddhist monkKung Ye in 901, and its original capital was established in Songak (modernKaesong). The kingdom was based in the northern regions, which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees.[175][169] Later Goguryeo's name was changed to Majin in 904, and Taebong in 911. In 918,Wang Kŏn, a prominent general of Goguryeo descent, deposed the increasingly despotic and paranoid Kung Ye, and establishedGoryeo. By 936, Goryeo conquered its rivals and achieved the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms.[176]
Goryeo was founded byWang Kŏn in 918 and became the ruling dynasty of Korea by 936. It was named "Goryeo" because Wang Kŏn, who was of Goguryeo descent,[177] deemed the nation as the successor ofGoguryeo.[167][178][179][180][181][182] Wang Kŏn made his hometownKaesong (in present-day North Korea) the capital. The dynasty lasted until 1392, although the government was controlled bymilitary regime leaders between 1170 and 1270. Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ) is the source of the English name "Korea".[183][184]
During this period, laws were codified and a civil service system was introduced.Buddhism flourished and spread throughout the peninsula. The development ofceladon pottery flourished in the 12th and 13th centuries.[185][186] The production of theTripitaka Koreana onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks,[187] and use of metalmovable type attest to Goryeo's cultural achievements.[188][189][190][191][192]
In 1018, theLiao dynasty, which was the most powerful empire of its time,[193][194] invaded Goryeo but was defeated by GeneralKang Kam-ch'an at theBattle of Kuju to end theGoryeo–Khitan War. After defeating the Khitan Empire, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which theTripitaka Koreana was completed, and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists.[195][196]
In 1231, theMongols began theirinvasions of Korea during seven major campaigns and 39 years of struggle, but were unable to conquer Korea.[197] Exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent itscrown prince to theDadu to swear allegiance to theYuan dynasty;Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince,[197] and for the following 80 years Goryeo existedunder the overlordship of the Mongol-ruledYuan dynasty inChina.[198][199] The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,[197] and thelast empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean woman.[200][201]
In the 1350s, the Yuan dynasty declined rapidly due to internal struggles, enabling KingGongmin to reform the Goryeo government.[202] Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, including the removal of pro-Yuan aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.[203] During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conqueredLiaoyang in 1356, repulsed two largeinvasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when GeneralCh'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Yuantumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to theWokou menace and usednaval artillery created byCh'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.
The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392.Yi Seong-gye, the founder of theJoseon dynasty, took power in a coup in 1388 and after serving as the power behind the throne for two monarchs, established the Joseon dynasty in 1392.[204]
In 1392, the generalYi Seong-gye, later known as Taejo, established theJoseon dynasty (1392–1897), named in honor of the ancient kingdomGojoseon,[14][205][note 3] and founded on idealisticConfucianism-based ideology.[206] The prevailing philosophy throughout the Joseon dynasty wasNeo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by theseonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.
Taejo moved the capital toHanyang (modern-daySeoul) and built the palaceGyeongbokgung. In 1394 he adoptedNeo-Confucianism as the country's official religion, and pursued the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. His son and grandson,King Taejong andSejong the Great, implemented numerous administrative, social, and economic reforms and established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty.[207]
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science.[208] Most notable among them wasSejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgatedHangul, the Korean alphabet.[209] This golden age[208] saw great cultural and scientific advancements,[210] including in printing,meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science,ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.[211]
Internal conflicts within the royal court, civil unrest and other political struggles plagued the nation in the years that followed, worsened by theJapanese invasion of Korea between 1592 and 1598.Toyotomi Hideyoshi marshalled his forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled by the Korean military, with the assistance of therighteous armies and ChineseMing dynasty. This war also saw the rise of the career of AdmiralLee Sun-sin with theturtle ship. As Korea was rebuilding, it had to repelinvasions by the Manchu in 1627and 1636. Internal politics were bitterly divided and settled by violence.[212] HistorianJaHyun Kim Haboush, in the summary by her editor William Haboush in 2016, interpreted the decisive impact of the victories against the Japanese and Manchu invaders:
Out of this great war at the end of the 16th century and the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636–1637, Koreans emerged with a discernible sense of themselves as a distinct ethnic united by birth, language, and belief forged by this immense clash of the three great powers of East Asia ... Korea arrived at the brink of the seventeenth century as a nation.[213]
After the second Manchu invasion and stabilized relations with the newQing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of external peace. However internally, the bitter and violentfactional battles raged on. In the 18th century,King Yeongjo (r. 1724–76) and his grandsonKing Jeongjo (r. 1776–1800) led a new renaissance.[214] Yeongjo and Jeongjo reformed the tax system which grew the revenue stream into the treasury, strengthened the military and sponsored a revival of learning. The printing press was rejuvenated by using movable metal type; the number and quality of publications sharply increased. Jeongjo sponsored scholars from various factions to work in theKyujanggak, or Inner Royal Library, established in 1776.[215]
Corruption in government and social unrest prevailed after 1776. The government attempted sweeping reforms in the late 19th century, but adhered to a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname "Hermit Kingdom". The policy had been established primarily for protection against Westernimperialism, but soon the Joseon dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading intoJapanese rule.[216]
The destabilization of the Korean nation may be said to have begun in the period ofSedo Jeongchi (Korean: 세도정치;Hanja: 勢道政治;lit. in-law politics) whereby, on the death ofKing Jeongjo of Joseon (r. 1776–1800), the 10-year-oldSunjo of Joseon (r. 1800–34) ascended the Korean throne, with the true power of the administration residing with his regent, Kim Jo-sun, as a representative of theAndong Kim clan. As a result, the disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues – land tax, military service, and the state granary system – heaped additional hardship on the peasantry. Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (Hyangni), who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom.Yangban families, formerly well-respected for their status as a noble class and being powerful both "socially and politically", were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, orHwajok, and the boat-borne water brigands orSujok) and exploited by the elite, many poor village folk sought to pool their resources, such as land, tools, and production, to survive. Despite the government effort in bringing an end to the practice of owning slaves in 1801, slavery in Korea remained legal until 1894.[217]
At this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well tolerated among the nobles, most notably in and around the area of Seoul.[218] Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, thePungyang Jo clan, took the lives of priests and followers, known as theKorean Martyrs, dissuading membership by the upper class. The peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings ofChoe Je-u, (최제우, 崔濟愚, 1824–64) called "Donghak", which literally meansEastern Learning, and the religion became especially popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (from foreign influences), nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing illiterate farmers to understand and accept them more readily. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during theSecond Opium War. He believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following theJinju uprising led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with "misleading the people and sowing discord in society". Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains.[219]
Gojong of Korea (r. 1864–1907), enthroned at the age of 12, succeededCheoljong of Joseon (r. 1849–63). King Gojong's father,Heungseon Daewongun (Yi Ha-ung; 1820–98), ruled as the de facto regent and inaugurated far-ranging reforms to strengthen the central administration. Of special note was the decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance the project through additional levies on the population. Further inherited rule by a few elite ruling families was challenged by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments. In addition,Sowon – private academies – which threatened to develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large landholdings, were taxed and repressed despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. Lastly, a policy of steadfast isolationism was enforced to staunch the increasing intrusion of Western thought and technology. He was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters ofEmpress Myeongseong, also called "Queen Min".[220]
One of the earliest photographs depictingyangban Koreans, taken in 1863
Korea's culture was based on the philosophy ofNeo-Confucianism, which emphasizes morality, righteousness, and practical ethics. Wide interest in scholarly study resulted in the establishment of private academies and educational institutions. Many documents were written about history, geography, medicine, and Confucian principles. The arts flourished in painting, calligraphy, music, dance, andceramics.[221]
The most notable cultural event of this era is the creation and promulgation of the Korean alphabetHunmin jeongeom (later calledHangul) bySejong the Great in 1446.[209] This period also saw various other cultural, scientific and technological advances.[222]
During Joseon dynasty, a social hierarchy system existed that greatly affected Korea's social development. The king and the royal family were atop the hereditary system, with the next tier being a class of civil or military officials and landowners known asyangban, who worked for the government and lived off the efforts of tenant farmers and slaves.
A middle class,jungin, were technical specialists such as scribes, medical officers, technicians in science-related fields, artists and musicians. Commoners,sangmin, constituted the largest class in Korea. They had obligations to pay taxes, provide labor, and serve in the military. By paying land taxes to the state, they were allowed to cultivate land and farm. The lowest class,cheonmin, included tenant farmers, slaves, entertainers, craftsmen, prostitutes, laborers, shamans, vagabonds, outcasts, and criminals. Althoughslave status was hereditary, they could be sold or freed at officially set prices, and the mistreatment of slaves was forbidden.[223]
Thisyangban focused system started to change in the late 17th century as political, economic and social changes came into place. By the 19th century, new commercial groups emerged, and the active social mobility caused theyangban class to expand, resulting in the weakening of the old class system. The Korea government ordered the freedom of government slaves in 1801. The class system of Korea was completely banned in 1894.[224]
Korea dealt with a pair ofJapanese invasions from 1592 to 1598 (Imjin War or theSeven Years' War). Prior to the war, Korea sent two ambassadors to scout for signs of Japan's intentions of invading Korea. However, they came back with two different reports, and while the politicians split into sides, few proactive measures were taken.
This conflict brought prominence to AdmiralYi Sun-sin as he contributed to eventually repelling the Japanese forces with the innovative use of histurtle ship, a massive, yet swift, ramming/cannon ship fitted with iron spikes.[225][226][227] The use of thehwacha (a rocket-launched arrow battery) was also highly effective in repelling the Japanese invaders from the land.
Subsequently, Korea wasinvaded in 1627 andagain in 1636 by the Manchus, who went on to conquer China and establish theQing dynasty, after which the Joseon dynasty recognizedQing suzerainty.[228] Though Joseon respected its traditional tributary position to China, there was persistent loyalty for the perishedMing China and disdain for the Manchus, who were regarded as barbarians.
During the 19th century, Joseon tried to control foreign influence by closing its borders to all nations. In 1853 the American whaleshipSouth America visitedBusan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local officials. Several Americans shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court was aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as theFirst andSecond Opium Wars, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the West.
In 1866, reacting to greater numbers of Korean converts to Catholicism despite several waves of persecutions, the Joseon court clamped down on them, massacring French Catholic missionaries and Korean converts alike.In response France invaded and occupied portions of Ganghwa Island. The French army occupiedGanghwa Island, an island near Seoul, and tried to advance to Seoul, but failed due to strong resistance from the Korean army, and then withdrew from the island.
TheSS General Sherman, a privately American-owned armed merchant marine sidewheel schooner, illegally attempted to open Korea to trade in 1866. Due to a miscalculation of water depth, the ship ran aground Pyongyang. After being ordered to leave on pain of execution by the Korean officials, the American crewmen sent out adinghy to forage. They took hostages from thejunk that intercepted them. Sporadic fighting ensued, resulting in the deaths of eight Koreans, the destruction of theSherman byfire ship, and the killing of the crew. This incident is celebrated by the DPRK as a precursor to the capture of theUSS Pueblo in 1968. The Korean government did not inform the United States about the incident. In 1871, theUnited States expedition to Korea (Shinmiyangyo) set out to determine the fate of theSherman. This incident is called theShinmiyangyo in Korea. American warships, also with an agenda to open Korea to trade, sailed up the Han River against the will of the Korean government, attracting fire from a fort defending the capital. As punishment, the Americans attacked local military installations, provoking theBattle of Ganghwa. They killed around 243 to 350 Koreans onGanghwa Island before withdrawing. This angered the Korean government and had the unintended effect of temporarily increasing isolationism and military strength.
In 1876, Korea was forced by warships to sign a trade treaty with Japan, the first formal treaty between the two nations in 433 years, since the 1443Treaty of Gyehae.[229] Thisunequal treaty compelled the Joseon to open up Korean ports, as well as grantingextraterritoriality within Korea to theMeiji government and her people.In 1882 signed a treaty with the United States, in a few years ending centuries of isolation.
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Conflict between the conservative court and a reforming faction led to theGapsin Coup in 1884. The reformers sought to reform Korea's institutionalized social inequality, by proclaiming social equality and the elimination of the privileges of theyangban class. The reformers were backed by Japan, and were thwarted by the arrival of Qing troops, invited by the conservativeQueen Min. The Chinese troops departed but the leading generalYuan Shikai remained in Korea from 1885 to 1894 as Resident, directing Korean affairs.
Korea became linked by telegraph to China in 1888 with Chinese controlled telegraphs. China permitted Korea to establish embassies with Russia (1884), Italy (1885), France (1886), the United States, and Japan. China attempted to block the exchange of embassies in Western countries, but not with Tokyo. The Qing government provided loans. China promoted its trade in an attempt to block Japanese merchants, which led to Chinese favour in Korean trade. Anti-Chinese riots broke out in 1888 and 1889 and Chinese shops were torched. Japan remained the largest foreign community and largest trading partner.[230]
Arapidly modernizing Meiji Japan successfully challenged China in theFirst Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) triggered by theDonghak Peasant Movement, forcing it to abandon its long-standing claims to deference by Korea. Modernization began in Korea when Japan forced it to open its ports in 1876. However, at first, the forces of modernization met strong opposition not only from the traditionalism of the ruling Korean elite but from the population at large, which supported the traditional Confucian system of government by gentlemen, therefore no major modernization processes occurred until the establishment of theKorean Empire in 1897. Japan used modernization movements to gain more and more control over Korea.[231]
As a result of theFirst Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the 1895Treaty of Shimonoseki was concluded between China and Japan.[236] It stipulated the abolition of subordinate relationships Korea had with China, in which Korea was a client state of China since theImo Incident in 1882.
In 1897, Joseon was renamed theKorean Empire, and King Gojong becameEmperor Gojong. The imperial government aimed to become a strong and independent nation by implementing domestic reforms, strengthening military forces, developing commerce and industry, and surveying land ownership. Organizations like theIndependence Club also rallied to assert the rights of the Joseon people, but clashed with the government which proclaimed absolute monarchy and power.[237]
Russian influence was strong in the Empire until being defeated by Japan in theRusso-Japanese War (1904–1905). Korean Empire effectively became aprotectorate of Japan on 17 November 1905, the1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal or commission.[238][239]
Following the signing of the treaty, many intellectuals and scholars set up various organizations and associations, embarking on movements for independence. In 1907, Gojong was forced to abdicate after Japan learned that hesent secret envoys to theSecond Hague Conventions to protest against the protectorate treaty, leading to the accession of Gojong's son,Emperor Sunjong. Immediately after Sunjong ascended the throne, Empire of Japan forcibly concluded theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1907 in order to further strengthen the authority of the Resident-General, appointing Japanese vice-ministers in each department of the Korean Empire's government and openly interfering in the empire's internal affairs (vice-ministerial politics), and forcibly disbanded the army through a secret agreement.
Soldiers who opposed this joined theRighteous army, and the movement expanded into a nationwide Righteous army war. However, onJuly 12,1909, Empire of Japan took away the Korean Empire's judicial and police powers through the Japan–Korea Memorandum of 1909, and suppressed the resistance of the Righteous army nationwide with force through the 60-day South Korea big suppression operation. At this operation, about 17,000 Righteous army and civilians were massacred.[240]
In 1909, independence activistAn Jung-geun assassinatedItō Hirobumi, formerResident-General of Korea, for Ito's intrusions on the Korean politics.[241][242] This prompted the Japanese to ban all political organizations and proceed with plans for annexation.
In 1910, theEmpire of Japan effectively annexedKorea through theJapan–Korea Annexation Treaty. Along with all other previously signed treaties between Korea and Japan, the annexation treaty was confirmed to be null and void in 1965. While Japan asserted that the treaty was concluded legally, Korea disputed the legality of the treaty, because the treaty was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and it violated the international convention on external pressures regarding treaties.[243][244] Many Koreans formed theRighteous army to fight against Japanese rule.[245]
After the annexation, Japan set out to suppress many traditional Korean customs, including eventually even the Korean language itself.[246][245] Economic policies were implemented primarily for Japanese benefit.[247][248] European-styletransport andcommunication networks were constructed across the nation in order to extract resources and exploit labor. The banking system was consolidated and the Korean currency abolished.[249]
AfterEmperor Gojong died in January 1919, with rumors of poisoning, independence rallies against the Japanese colonizers took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (theMarch First Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 persons were killed by Japanese soldiers[note 4][252] and police.[253] An estimated two million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies, although Japanese records claim participation of less than half a million.[254] This movement was partly inspired by United States PresidentWoodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self-determination and an end to colonial rule after World War I.[254]
TheProvisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established inShanghai, China, in the aftermath of the March 1 Movement, which coordinated the liberation effort and resistance against Japanese rule. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government included theBattle of Chingshanli of 1920 and theambush of Japanese military leadership in China in 1932. In 1920, Imperial Japanese Army massacred somewhere from 5,000 to tens of thousands of Korean civilians at Gando in retaliation to loss atBattle of Chingshanli. This incident is calledGando Massacre. The Provisional Government is considered to be thede jure government of the Korean people between 1919 and 1948. The legitimacy of the provisional government is enshrined into the preamble of theconstitution of theRepublic of Korea.[255]
Primary and secondary education in Korea were classified as being for "those habitually using the Korean language", and for "those habitually using the Japanese language". Ethnic Koreans could thus attend the schools primarily for Japanese, and vice versa.[256]
As of 1926, the Korean language was taught for four hours a week for the first and second year of a six-year course, and three hours a week for the rest of the course. Both Japanese and Koreans paid school fees, without exception. The average fee in a common school was about 25 cents a month. In 1923, Koreans paid on average 20 cents per capita and Japanese in Korea about 3.30 dollars per capita.[257]
Theliteracy rate of Korea reached 22% in 1945.[258] The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching of the Korean language and history.[when?][241] The Korean language was banned, and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names,[259][note 5][260] and newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean. Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.[261] According to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were taken from Korea.[261][262]
SomeKoreans left theKorean Peninsula for exile in China, the United States, and elsewhere. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known asDongnipgun (Liberation Army); they would travel in and out of the Sino-Korean border, fightingguerrilla warfare with Japanese forces. Some of them would group together in the 1940s as theKorean Liberation Army, which took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined thePeople's Liberation Army and theNational Revolutionary Army.
The expulsion of the Japanese in 1945 removed practically all administrative and technical expertise. While the Japanese only comprised 2.6% of the population in 1944, they were an urban elite. The largest 50 cities contained 71% of the Japanese but only 12% of the Koreans. They largely dominated the ranks of the well-educated occupations. Meanwhile, 71% of the Koreans worked on farms.[263]
Liberation of KoreaAmerican Marines climbing a sea wall inIncheon during a decisive moment in the timeline of theKorean War
At theCairo Conference on November 22, 1943, the US, UK, and China agreed that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent";[264][265] at a later meeting inYalta in February 1945, the Allies agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea.[266] On August 14, 1945,Soviet forces entered Korea by amphibious landings, enabling them to secure control in the north. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on August 15, 1945.
The unconditional surrender of Japan brought about the liberation of Korea. However, the fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology in the post-war world led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones, effectively starting on September 8, 1945. TheUnited States administered the southern half of the peninsula and theSoviet Union took over the area north of the38th parallel. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American belief that it was too aligned with the communists.[267] This division was meant to be temporary and was intended to return a unified Korea back to its people after the United States,United Kingdom,Soviet Union, andRepublic of China could arrange a single government.
Following theunconditional surrender of the Japanese Empire in August 15, 1945, Korea experienced a temporary liberation. However, the post-war global situation rapidly devolved into theCold War system centered around the two superpowers: theUnited States (US) and theSoviet Union (USSR).[268] This Cold War dynamic became visibly apparent on the Korean Peninsula.[269]
The United States was wary of the potential influence of the Soviet Union's powerful ground forces on the Korean Peninsula and the larger East Asian region.[270] Consequently, the US proposed a division of the peninsula along the38th parallel into two zones—North and South—to be governed under aTrusteeship administration, to which the Soviet Union agreed.[271]
The Moscow Conference and the Trusteeship Controversy
On December 16, 1945, after theThree Foreign Ministers' Conference involving the US, USSR, and the United Kingdom, US Secretary of State James F. Byrnes submitted a document titled‘the united administration for Korea’ the following day. The core of this document was a detailedTrusteeship plan.[272]
This plan stipulated that, instead of being governed by a Korean government, the peninsula would be administered by the four governing powers—acting on behalf of the UN and the Korean people—who would assume administrative, legislative, judicial, and executive functions forfive years, until Korea could independently carry out these functions.[273] However, the Soviet Union initiallyobjected to this proposal, advocating instead that aProvisional Government should first be established within Korea,after which the Trusteeship should be implemented.[274]
The compromise between the US and Soviet positions led to the joint communiqué of theMoscow Foreign Ministers' Conference (December 27) and the subsequent establishment of theUS-Soviet Joint Commission.[275][276]
Anti-Trusteeship (Ban-Tak) and Pro-Trusteeship (Chan-Tak) Movements
In Korea, the proposal for Trusteeship was widely viewed as a continuation ofJapanese colonial rule.[277] This sentiment fueled theAnti-Trusteeship (Opposition to Trusteeship,Ban-Tak) campaign.This movement was primarily led byright-wing political forces, including theProvisional Government of the Republic of Korea (PGROK) in Shanghai and figures likeSyngman Rhee, who sought to establish a unified and sovereign national government immediately.[278]
Conversely,left-wing forces, generally aligned with the Soviet Union, advocated forPro-Trusteeship (Support for Trusteeship,Chan-Tak)[279] The two camps failed to reconcile their views and remained in fierce opposition, a fundamental conflict that paved the way for thepermanent division of the Korean Peninsula.[280]
Failure of Unification Efforts and the Establishment of Two Koreas
The Provisional Government in Shanghai was ultimatelynot recognized as the legitimate government by theUnited States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK).[281][282] Furthermore, the US-Soviet Joint Commission collapsed due to insurmountable differences in opinion between the two countries. InSeptember 1947, the US submitted the Korean issue to theUnited Nations (UN).[283][284]
Leaders of the Provisional Government, such asKim Gu andKim Kyu-sik, continued to oppose a separate general election in the South and the establishment of two separate governments.[285] They attempted to hold talks with the North in a final effort to establish a unified nation, but these efforts were unsuccessful.[286]
Ultimately, under the supervision of theUN Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK), a separate election (theMay 10 General Election) was held in South Korea.[287][288] TheGovernment of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established onAugust 15, 1948.[289]Subsequently, theDemocratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) was established in the North onSeptember 9, 1948, formalizing the existence of two states on the peninsula.[290] OnDecember 12, 1948, the UN General Assembly recognized theRepublic of Korea as the only lawful government in Korea.[291]
On June 25, 1950, theKorean War broke out when North Korea breached the 38th parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being. After the war, the 1954Geneva conference failed to adopt a solution for a unified Korea. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll thanWorld War II or theVietnam War, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War era. In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.[292][293][294][295][296]
On April 27, 2018, both North and South Korea signed thePanmunjom Declaration on ending the conflict between the two countries to reunify Korea in the future.[297] The declaration was suspended by North Korea in 2023[298] and by South Korea in 2024.[299]
In 1951, under pressure of the United States, the government of South Korea began diplomatic discussions with Japan. This was the first international interaction between Korea and Japan since the end ofWorld War II.President Harry S. Truman, under the doctrine of theBamboo curtain, deemed it urgent for Japan and South Korea to ally with each other to create a stronger western hegemon in the East.[300]
This proved to be much more of an onerous process than expected by American diplomats. The trauma from theKorea under Japanese rule period was manifold and resented.[301] The cultural distrust between Korea and Japan in political life can be traced as far back as theImjin War in the 1590s. Diplomats of the ROK drew out discussions till June 1965, where they agreed to sign thetreaty on basic relations.[302]
Prime ministerHayato Ikeda of Japan meeting with South Korean dictatorSyngman Rhee on June 22, 1965, signing the treaty.
Beginning withSyngman Rhee in 1948, a series of autocratic governments took power in South Korea with American support and influence.
With the coup ofPark Chung Hee in 1961, a new economic policy began. In order to promote economic development, a policy ofexport-oriented industrialization was applied. President Park developed the South Korean economy through a series of highly successfulFive-Year Plans. South Korea's economic development was spearheaded by thechaebol, family conglomerates such asSamsung,Hyundai,SK Group andLG Corporation. The chaebols received state backing via tax breaks and cheap loans, and took advantage of South Korea's inexpensive labor to produce exportable products.[303] The government made education a very high priority to create a well-educated populace capable of productively contributing to the economy. Despite occasional political instability, the Korean economy subsequently saw enormous growth for nearly forty years, in a period known as theMiracle on the Han River. The unparalleled economic miracle brought South Korea from one of the poorest states in the world after the Korean War into a fullydeveloped country within a generation.
South Korea eventually transitioned into a market-oriented democracy in 1987 largely due to popular demand for political reform, and then hosted the1988 Summer Olympics, the secondSummer Olympic Games to be held on the Asian continent, in the following year.
Moving on from cheap, lower-value light industry exports, the South Korean economy eventually moved onto more capital-intensive, higher-value industries, such asinformation technology,shipbuilding, auto manufacturing, and petroleum refining. Today, South Korea is a leading economy and a technological powerhouse, rivaling even countries such as the United States ininformation and communications technology. South Korean pop culture has also boomed abroad in recent years, in a phenomenon known as theKorean Wave.
North Korea began their first ever diplomatic missions to Japan in 1955 to establish a "General Association of Korean Residents", an international organization led by Koreans in Japan who identified as belonging to the North Korean government, or ethnically North Korean; effectively to establish an embassy in Japan without initiating formal amity.[304] The office was created inTokyo.
Kim Il Sung denounced the 1965Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and South Korea. Throughout the 1970s, North Korea eagerly supported and harbored members of theJapanese Red Army, which was recognized as a terrorist group by the Japan and United States government in 1971.[305] The DPRK also gave diplomatic support to theJapan Socialist Party.
Due to Soviet influence, North Korea established a communist government with a hereditary succession of leadership, with ties to China and the Soviet Union.Kim Il Sung became the supreme leader until his death in 1994, after which his son,Kim Jong Il took power. Kim Jong Il's son,Kim Jong Un, is the current leader, taking power after his father's death in 2011.[306] After the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, the North Korean economy went on a path of steep decline, and it is currently heavily reliant on international food aid and trade with China.
^abKim Jongseo, Jeong Inji, et al. "Goryeosa (The History of Goryeo)", 1451, Article for July 934, 17th year in the Reign of Taejo
^abLee, Ki-baik 1984, p. 103, "When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom."
Seth 2010, p. 443: "An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth."
Stark 2008, p. 49: "Although Kija may have truly existed as a historical figure, Tangun is more problematical."
Schmid 2013, p. 270: "Most [Korean historians] treat the [Tangun] myth as a later creation."
Peterson & Margulies 2009, p. 5: "The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China."
Hulbert 2014, p. 73: "If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija."
^Yi, Hyŏn-hŭi; Pak, Sŏng-su; Yun, Nae-hyŏn (2005).New history of Korea. Jimoondang. p. 201.ISBN978-89-88095-85-0.Archived from the original on 2016-12-04.He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo.
^Lee, Ki-baik 1984, p. 47, "Koguryŏ was the first to open hostilities, with a bold assault across the Liao River against Liao-hsi, in 598. The Sui emperor, Wen Ti, launched a retaliatory attack on Koguryŏ but met with reverses and turned back in mid-course. Yang Ti, the next Sui emperor, proceeded in 612 to mount an invasion of unprecedented magnitude, marshalling a huge force said to number over a million men. And when his armies failed to take Liao-tung Fortress (modern Liao-yang), the anchor of Koguryŏ's first line of defense, he had a nearly a third of his forces, some 300,000 strong, break off the battle there and strike directly at the Koguryŏ capital of P'yŏngyang. But the Sui army was lured into a trap by the famed Koguryŏ commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk, and suffered a calamitous defeat at the Salsu (Ch'ŏngch'ŏn) River. It is said that only 2,700 of the 300,000 Sui soldiers who had crossed the Yalu survived to find their way back, and the Sui emperor now lifted the siege of Liao-tung Fortress and withdrew his forces to China proper. Yang Ti continued to send his armies against Koguryŏ but again without success, and before long his war-weakened empire crumbled."
^Nahm 2005, p. 18: "China, which had been split into many states since the early 3rd century, was reunified by the Sui dynasty at the end of the 6th century. Soon after that, Sui China mobilized a large number of troops and launched a sagiwar against Koguryŏ. However, the people of Koguryŏ were united and they were able to repel the Chinese aggressors. In 612, Sui troops invaded Korea again, but Koguryŏ forces fought bravely and destroyed Sui troops everywhere. General Ŭlchi Mundŏk of Koguryŏ completely wiped out some 300,000 Sui troops which came across the Yalu River in the battles near the Salsu River (now Ch'ŏngch'ŏn River) with his ingenious military tactics. Only 2,700 Sui troops were able to flee from Korea. The Sui dynasty, which wasted so much energy and manpower in aggressive wars against Koguryŏ, fell in 618."
^Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (2014-12-15).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. p. 29.ISBN978-1-107-09846-6.Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved17 July 2016.
^Lee, Ki-baik 1984, p. 67, "Loath to let slip such an opportunity, T'ang mounted a fresh invasion under Li Chi in 667 and Silla launched a coordinated offensive. This time the T'ang army received every possible assistance from the defector Namsaeng, and although Koguryŏ continued to hold out for another year, the end finally came in 668."
^Jonathan W. Best,A History of the Early Korean Kingdom of Paekche, together with an annotated translation of "The Paekche Annals" of the "Samguk sagi" (Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2007).
^Pottery – MSN Encarta. Archived fromthe original on 2009-10-29. "The pottery of the Yayoi culture (300? BC-AD 250?), made by aMongol people who came from Korea to Kyūshū, has been found throughout Japan. "
^Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather (1955).Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283.ISBN978-0-471-07053-5. Retrieved21 July 2016.From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. . . . While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. . . . The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Chŏng, Yang-mo; Smith, Judith G.; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) (1998).Arts of Korea. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 230.ISBN978-0-87099-850-8.Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved30 September 2016.
^International, Rotary (February 1996).The Rotarian. Rotary International. p. 28. Retrieved30 September 2016.
^Leffman, David; Lewis, Simon; Atiyah, Jeremy (2003).China. Rough Guides. p. 519.ISBN978-1-84353-019-0.Archived from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved29 July 2016.
^Injae, Lee; Miller, Owen; Jinhoon, Park; Hyun-Hae, Yi (2014-12-15).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–65.ISBN978-1-107-09846-6.Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved24 February 2017.
^"Gutenberg Bible".British Library. The British Library Board.Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved19 August 2016.
^"Korea, 1000–1400 A.D."Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved19 August 2016.
^Bowman, John (2000).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 202.ISBN978-0-231-50004-3. Retrieved31 July 2016.The Mongolian-Khitan invasions of the late tenth century challenge the stability of the Koryo government, but a period of prosperity follows the defeat of the Khitan in 1018..
^Haralambous, Yannis; Horne, P. Scott (26 September 2007).Fonts & Encodings. "O'Reilly Media, Inc.". p. 155.ISBN978-0-596-10242-5.Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved8 October 2016.
^Morgan E. Clippinger, "Problems of the Modernization of Korea: the Development of Modernized Elites Under Japanese Occupation"Asiatic Research Bulletin (1963) 6#6 pp 1–11.
^Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, The Far East, Volume VIII. United States Department of State. 1946. pp. 617–618.In American draft it was proposed for establishment of trusteeship in Korea to create four power administrative organ (US, USSR, Great Britain, China) which should exercise its powers and functions through High Commissioner and Executive Council... In American draft it was proposed to establish trusteeship in Korea for period of 5 years and extension of trusteeship for 5 more years was allowed.
^Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, The Far East, Volume VIII. United States Department of State. 1946. pp. 617–618.In American draft it was proposed for establishment of trusteeship in Korea to create four power administrative organ (US, USSR, Great Britain, China) which should exercise its powers and functions through High Commissioner and Executive Council... In American draft it was proposed to establish trusteeship in Korea for period of 5 years and extension of trusteeship for 5 more years was allowed.
^"Korea, 1945–1950".Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved2025-11-05.In December 1945, the Foreign Ministers of the United States, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the United Kingdom met in Moscow and issued a joint communiqué committing their governments to the establishment of a provisional Korean democratic government and to the formation of a joint U.S.-Soviet commission to assist that process.
^"신탁통치 반대운동 (Anti-Trusteeship Movement)".우리역사넷 (Our History Net) (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved2025-11-05.The Anti-Trusteeship movement, spearheaded primarily by right-wing forces due to media distortion of the Moscow decision, took on an anti-Soviet and anti-Communist character.
^"신탁통치 반대운동 (Anti-Trusteeship Movement)".한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Culture) (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved2025-11-05.Initially, both left and right-wing groups opposed trusteeship, but the left-wing soon reversed its position, supporting trusteeship as the only way to prevent division, while the right-wing maintained its opposition.
^"좌익세력과 찬탁논리 (Left-wing Forces and the Pro-Trusteeship Logic)".우리역사넷 (Our History Net) (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved2025-11-05.The left-wing forces decided to support the Moscow decision, asserting that it was the most appropriate international and domestic solution that respected the interests of the Korean nation in light of the current international and domestic situation.
^"탁치문제에 대한 논쟁 (The Controversy over the Trusteeship Issue)".우리역사넷 (Our History Net) (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved2025-11-05.The confrontation between pro- and anti-trusteeship factions fractured the national liberation and unification movements, thereby consolidating the division structure and laying the groundwork for the establishment of a separate government.
^"Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, The British Commonwealth, The Far East, Volume VI".Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. United States Department of State. Retrieved2025-11-05.The policy of this Government in dealing with groups such as the 'Korean Provisional Government' is to avoid taking action which might... tend to compromise the right of the Korean people to choose the ultimate form of government under which they will live.
^"South Korea Under United States Occupation, 1945-48".Country Studies (Library of Congress). The Library of Congress. Retrieved2025-11-05.The United States recognized neither the republic nor the provisional government. The United States would not recognize any group as a government until an agreement was reached among the Western Allies.
^"미소공동위원회 (US-Soviet Joint Commission)".한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Culture) (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved2025-11-05.The Second US-Soviet Joint Commission was indefinitely adjourned on August 21, 1947, due to the irreconcilable differences between the US and the USSR over the scope of political parties and social organizations that could participate in the formation of the provisional government.
^Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, The Far East, Volume VI. United States Department of State. 1947. p. 757. Retrieved2025-11-05.When the Soviet Union rejected this American proposal, the United States decided to refer the problem of Korean independence to the General Assembly of the United Nations in September 1947.
^"남북협상 (Inter-Korean Negotiation)".한국민족문화대백과사전 (Encyclopedia of Korean Culture) (in Korean). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved2025-11-05.Kim Ku announced 'An Appeal to the Thirty Million Compatriots' on February 10, 1948, opposing a separate government and proposing a conference of leaders from both South and North to prevent division.
^"통일국가 수립을 위한 마지막 노력 (The Final Effort to Establish a Unified Nation)".우리역사넷 (Our History Net) (in Korean). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved2025-11-05.In opposition to the movement for a separate government in the South, Kim Ku and Kim Kyu-sik attended the Joint Conference of South and North Korean Political Parties and Social Organizations held in Pyongyang in April 1948, but failed to find a breakthrough for establishing a unified state.
^"Resolution 112 (II). The problem of the independence of Korea".United Nations General Assembly. 1947-11-14. Retrieved2025-11-05.The General Assembly... recommends that in all parts of Korea elections be held not later than 31 March 1948 on the basis of adult suffrage and by secret ballot to choose representatives with whom the Commission may consult.
^Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, Volume VI: East Asia and the Pacific. United States Department of State. 1948-02-26. p. 1130.The Interim Committee adopted the resolution on February 26, 1948, instructing the Commission to proceed with the observance of elections... in as much of Korea as was accessible to the Commission.
^"Korea, 1945–1950".Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved2025-11-05.On August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea (ROK) was formally established, with Syngman Rhee as the first President.
^"Division and the Korean War".Country Studies (Library of Congress). The Library of Congress. Retrieved2025-11-05.The Soviet Union recognized the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), proclaimed in Pyongyang on September 9, 1948, with Kim Il Sung as premier.
^Kim, Samuel S. (2014). "The Evolving Asian System".International Relations of Asia.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45.ISBN978-1-4422-2641-8.With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including theChinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), theVietnam War (2 million), and thePol Potgenocide in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).
^Cumings, Bruce (2011).The Korean War: A History.Modern Library. p. 35.ISBN978-0-8129-7896-4.Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of nonhostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.
^Painter, David S. (1999).The Cold War: An International History.Routledge. p. 30.ISBN978-0-415-15316-4.Before it ended, the Korean War cost over 3 million people their lives, including over 50,000 US servicemen and women and a much higher number of Chinese and Korean lives. The war also set in motion a number of changes that led to the militarization and intensification of the Cold War.
^Lewy, Guenter (1980).America in Vietnam.Oxford University Press. pp. 450–453.ISBN978-0-19-987423-1.For the Korean War the only hard statistic is that of American military deaths, which included 33,629 battle deaths and 20,617 who died of other causes. The North Korean and Chinese Communists never published statistics of their casualties. The number of South Korean military deaths has been given as in excess of 400,000; the South Korean Ministry of Defense puts the number of killed and missing at 281,257. Estimates of communist troops killed are about one-half million. The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1 million military deaths and a possible 2.5 million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict. The proportion of civilians killed in the major wars of this century (and not only in the major ones) has thus risen steadily. It reached about 42 percent in World War II and may have gone as high as 70 percent in the Korean War. ... we find that the ratio of civilian to military deaths [in Vietnam] is not substantially different from that of World War II and is well below that of the Korean War.
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"Han Chinese built four commanderies, or local military units, to rule the peninsula as far south as the Han River, with a core area at Lolang (Nangnang in Korean), near present-day P'yongyang. It is illustrative of the relentlessly different historiography practiced in North Korea and South Korea, as well as both countries' dubious projection backward of Korean nationalism, that North Korean historians denied that the Lolang district was centered in Korea and placed it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing."
Connor, Edgar V. (2003).Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Science Publishers. p. 112.ISBN978-1-59033-443-0.
"They place it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing, in order to de-emphasize China's influence on ancient Korean history."
"Immediately after destroying Wiman Chosŏn, the Han empire established administrative units to rule large territories in the northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria."
"When material evidence from the Han commandery site excavated during the colonial period began to be reinterpreted by Korean nationalist historians as the first full-fledged "foreign" occupation in Korean history, Lelang's location in the heart of the Korean peninsula became particularly irksome because the finds seemed to verify Japanese colonial theories concerning the dependency of Korean civilization on China."
"At present, the site of Lelang and surrounding ancient Han Chinese remains are situated in the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. Although North Korean scholars have continued to excavate Han dynasty tombs in the postwar period, they have interpreted them as manifestations of the Kochoson or the Koguryo kingdom."
"Lelang Commandery was crucial to understanding the early history of Korea, which lasted from 108 BCE to 313 CE around the Pyongyang area. However, because of its nature as a Han colony and the exceptional attention paid to it by Japanese colonial scholars for making claims of the innate heteronomy of Koreans, post 1945 Korean scholars intentionally avoided the issue of Lelang."
"But when Emperor Wu conquered Choson, all the small barbarian tribes in the northeastern region were incorporated into the established Han commanderies because of the overwhelming military might of Han China."
^modern historians including Graff consider such a figure greatly exaggerated[citation needed]
^Literally "old Joseon", the term was first coined in the 13th century AD to differentiate the ancient kingdom fromWiman Joseon and is now used to differentiate it from the Joseon dynasty.
^Park Eun-sik stated this amount is no more than hearsay and an inexact reasoning.
^However, the change of their given names was voluntary
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