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Jainism is anancient Indian religion belonging to theŚramaṇa tradition. Jains trace their history through a lineage of twenty-fourtirthankaras (ford-makers), reveringRishabhanatha as the first in the present time-cycle. While tradition considers the dharma eternal, scholarly consensus places its verifiable historical roots in the 9th–8th century BCE, with the last twotirthankaras,Parshvanatha (c. 9th-8th c. BCE) andMahavira (c. 6th c. BCE), widely accepted as historical figures. Mahavira is viewed by scholars not as a founder, but as a reformer of the pre-existing community established by Parshvanatha.
Following Mahavira'snirvana (c. 527 BCE, the start of theVira Nirvana Samvat era), Jainism spread acrossIndia. Early epigraphic evidence, like theHathigumpha inscription, attests to royal patronage under figures like KingKharavela ofKalinga (c. 2nd-1st c. BCE). Traditional accounts, primarily from the 12th-centuryParishishtaparvan, describeChandragupta Maurya embracing Jainism , whileMauryan emperors likeAshoka andSamprati are mentioned in edicts and Jain texts respectively. Archaeological finds atKankali Tila (Mathura) confirm a thriving community with temples, stupas, and a sophisticated artistic tradition under theKushanas (c. 1st-3rd c. CE), while inscriptions and temples atUdayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh) andDeogarh (Uttar Pradesh) show continued prosperity under theGuptas (c. 4th-6th c. CE).
The Classical Age (c. 7th–13th c. CE) saw significant patronage, particularly in theDeccan under dynasties like theChalukyas,Rashtrakutas, andWestern Gangas, leading to the creation of major literary works (Adi Purana) and monuments like theGommateshwara statue atShravanabelagola. InWestern India, theChaulukyas were notable patrons, supporting scholars likeHemachandra and ministers who built theDilwara Temples. The gradual schism between the two main sects,Digambara andŚvētāmbara, likely began around the 1st century CE and was solidified by the 5th century CE, primarily over differences in ascetic practices (nudity) and scriptural authority.
From the 12th century onwards, Jainism faced challenges due to the rise of competing devotional movements likeLingayatism and persecution duringMughal Empire, leading to the destruction of some temples. However, the community showed resilience, adapting as mercantile classes and influencing rulers like EmperorAkbar, who, advised by theŚvetāmbara monkHiravijaya, temporarily banned animal slaughter duringParyushana. The Modern Period saw interactions with colonial rule, academic recognition spurred by scholars likeHermann Jacobi, monastic revivals led by figures such asAcharya Shantisagar, and the emergence of reform movements.
While Jain tradition considers the dharma eternal, scholarly consensus traces its verifiable historical roots to the 9th–8th century BCE.[1] Scholars consider the last twotirthankara (ford-makers),Parshvanatha andMahavira (6th century BCE) as historical figures.[2][3][4][5] The preceding 22tirthankaras are generally regarded as legendary or mythological figures within historical analysis.[6] Some scholars, includingSarvepalli Radhakrishnan, proposed that Jainism's roots may predate the composition of theVedas.[7]
Some scholars hypothesize that Jain practices originated in theIndus Valley Civilisation (IVC), reflecting pre-Indo-Aryan spirituality.[9][10] This theory often points to IVC seals depicting figures in meditative postures resembling kayotsarga and the bull motif associated withRishabhanatha, the firsttirthankara.[11][12][13] However, this connection remains speculative and lacks definitive scholarly consensus.[citation needed]
Jainism emerged as part of theŚramaṇa tradition, a diverse group of non-Vedic ascetic movements in ancient India that also includedBuddhism andĀjīvika.[14] These traditions rejected Vedic authority and emphasized personal ascetic effort for liberation.[citation needed] Within this context, Jain tradition posits a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras, believed to guide humanity across cosmic time cycles.[15][16] While traditional accounts ascribe vast lifespans and superhuman attributes to them,[15][16] figures likeRishabha are mentioned (though interpreted differently) in Vedic texts,[17][18][19][20][a] andNeminatha (the 22nd) is traditionally linked as a cousin ofKrishna.[23][24][15]
Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE), the 23rdtirthankara, is the earliest Jain leader widely accepted by scholars as a historical figure, establishing Jainism's roots as a distinct pre-BuddhistŚramaṇa tradition.[2][25][26][5][27] Historical analysis suggests his teachings formed the basis for the practices later consolidated by Mahavira.[28][29] He was born and associated with the major ancient city of Kashi (Varanasi).[30]
According to Jain tradition, Parshvanatha attained enlightenment (Kevala Jnana) and subsequently taught for many years, advocating the Chaturyama Dharma (Four-fold Restraint): non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), and non-possession (aparigraha).[31] Traditional accounts place his liberation (moksha) atop Mount Sammeda (nowSammedShikharji), which consequently became a site of paramount importance in Jain pilgrimage history, revered as the liberation site for 20tirthankaras.[32][33]
While specific events like the legendary obstruction by Kamath during meditation (traditionally associated withAhichchhatra) are part of hagiography, the sites themselves gained historical significance.[34] Ahichchhatra became a major Jain pilgrimage center with temples commemorating Parshvanatha.[35]
Evidence for the continuity of his monastic order is suggested by Śvetāmbara texts, such as theUpkeśa Gaccha Pattavali (a monastic genealogy), which details a lineage of teachers that descended from him.[36][37][b]
Mahavira (c. 6th century BCE) is the most recent of the two JainTirthankaras widely accepted by scholars as a historical figure.[40] As a contemporary ofGautama Buddha, his life provides a crucial anchor point for early Jain history.[5][41][42] Corroborating this, early Buddhist texts frequently refer to Mahavira using the nameNigantha Nataputta and describe his followers (theNiganthas) as a significant, established ascetic community distinct from the Buddhists.[43][c][d][e] This external evidence supports the scholarly view that Mahavira was not the founder of a new religion, but rather a reformer and propagator of the pre-existing Śramaṇa tradition associated with Parshvanatha.[48]
According to Jain tradition, Mahavira was born into a royal family inKundagrama, near the major ancient city ofVaishali (in modern-day Bihar).[49][50][51] At age 30, he renounced worldly life and undertook intense ascetic practices for over 12 years before attaining omniscience (Kevala Jnana).[28][52] For the next 30 years, he traveled extensively through the Ganges basin, teaching the path to liberation.[53] Jain tradition venerates him as the 24th and finalTirthankara of the current cosmic age.[54] His liberation (moksha) is traditionally held to have occurred atPawapuri (also in Bihar), an event marking the beginning of the JainVira Nirvana Samvat calendar era.[3][55][56] The night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains asDiwali at the same time that Hindus celebrate it.[56][57] His chief disciple,Indrabhuti Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri.[58]
Following Mahavira's death, leadership of the Jain community passed to hisganadhara (chief disciple)Sudharmaswami (d. 600 BCE).[59] He is traditionally regarded as the head of the sangha from whom the entire historical monastic lineage is traced.[59] He was succeeded byJambuswami (d. 463 BCE) who is regarded as the last omniscient being by Jain traditions.[59]
During this period, the Jain (Nigantha) and Buddhist communities were prominent competitors for followers and patronage, particularly among the merchant (vaishya) groups.[60][61] Their frequent philosophical debates, preserved in both Jain and Buddhist texts, shaped the religious landscape of ancient India.[62][60] Traditional Jain accounts also name early kings of theHaryanka dynasty, such asBimbisara,Ajatashatru andUdayin, as patrons, though external historical verification for this varies.[63]
According toSvetambara, there were eight schisms (Nihvana).[64][65] Several works of non-canonical literature were composed by Śvetāmbara monks.[citation needed] Therefore, the scriptural literature of theŚvetāmbara sect is rich and detailed.[66]
Jainism is related to an extinct Indian religious tradition named Ājīvika. The latter is mentioned in ancient texts of Buddhism and of theŚvetāmbara sect of Jainism, and it is attributed toMakkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.[67]Bhagavati Sutra, one of the 45 canonical scriptures of the Śvetāmbara sect of Jainism refers to theAjivika founder as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira for a period of six years, after which the two fell out and parted ways. Śvetāmbara textBhagavati Sutra mentions a debate, disagreement and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala.[67] Jainism also flourished under theNanda Empire (424–321 BCE).[63] Both Ajivika and Jainism championedasceticism. This is the earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his.[68] The primary archaeological evidence for the Ājīvikas is theBarabar Caves in Bihar.[citation needed] These are the oldest rock-cut caves in India, dedicated by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.[citation needed] Their austere design provided a model for later Jain and Buddhist rock-cut monasteries.[citation needed]
The history of Jainism after Mahavira is marked by its spread across India, a process evidenced by a combination of strong textual traditions, royal edicts, and a growing body of archaeological and epigraphic proof.[citation needed]
The earliest epigraphic evidence for Jainism may be theBarli Inscription found inRajasthan.[70] Discovered in 1912 and dated onpalaeographic grounds to the 2nd or 1st century BCE, its fragmentary text is interpreted by some scholars to be a very early Jain dedication.[70][71] A clearer, though later, reference is found in theHathigumpha inscription (c. 2nd–1st c. BCE), which records that a "Nanda-raja" (King of theNanda dynasty, c. 4th c. BCE) had taken a "Kalinga Jina" (a Jain idol) fromKalinga.[72][73] This suggests Jainism was a prominent religion in Kalinga as early as the 4th century BCE.[72][73]
The earliest potential Jain monumental sculpture is theLohanipur Torso, a highly polished, naked male torso discovered near Patna, Bihar.[74] While its precise attribution is debated (Jain,Ajivika, or other), its Mauryan-era polish (c. 3rd c. BCE) places it as a key artifact in early Indian ascetic sculpture..[74][75][76] Early rock-cut shelters potentially used by Jain monks, like theSon Bhandar Caves inRajgir with inscriptions possibly mentioningArhats, also likely date to this period.[citation needed]
The traditional narrative of theDigambara-Śvetāmbara schism originates in this period.[77][78][79] According toDigambara accounts,Bhadrabahu (d. 298 BCE) predicted a 12-year famine inMagadha and led a migration of monks south toShravanabelagola.[80]Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322–298 BCE), the founder of theMauryan Empire, is said to have abdicated his throne to his sonBindusara, joined Bhadrabahu as a monk, and ended his life through the ascetic fast ofsallekhana at Shravanabelagola.[77][78][79] TheChandragiri hill and theChandragupta Basadi temple commemorate this tradition.[81] While Śvetāmbaras maintain that the schism happened in the 1st century CE, Digambaras hold that it happened in 2nd century BCE. Śvetāmbaras hold that the theory of Jain monks migrating from North to South is a fabricated account.[82] Some scholars specifically state that the said lore was developed after 600 CE and is inauthentic.[83]
The Mauryans who remained in the north were tolerant ofŚramaṇa traditions.[citation needed] The edicts of Chandragupta's grandson,Ashoka (c. 273–232 BCE), mention theNiganthas (Jains) when detailing the duties of his law-authorities (dhammamahatma), confirming they were a well-established community.[84] Ashoka's grandson,Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE), is described inŚvetāmbara canonical scriptures as a major patron, or "Jain Ashoka," who was converted by the monk Suhastin and built thousands of Jain temples from his capital inUjjain.[85][86][87]
Some interpret the presence ofgymnosophists ("naked philosophers") in Greek records as referring toDigambara ascetics.[88] However, after careful examination of the practice of self-immolation inKalanos andZarmanochegas, it is clear that they were not Jain ascetics as the practice of self-immolation is not acceptable as holy death or suicide in Jainism because of its violent nature and that it is not comparable tosallekhana, the traditional Jain method of performing suicide.[89] This was confirmed byPatrick Olivelle in 2011.[89]
Jain tradition, particularly the Kalakacharya Katha (legends likely compiled 4th-10th c. CE), describes significant interactions with Saka (Indo-Scythian) rulers inWestern India.[90] The narrative tells of the Jain monk Kalaka seeking Saka help against King Gardabhilla of Ujjain (c. 1st c. BCE), who had abducted Kalaka's sister, a nun.[90] The Sakas are depicted defeating Gardabhilla and establishing rule, initially revering Kalaka.[90]
While the historicity of this narrative and the relatedVikramaditya legends is debated, it reflects the historical reality of Saka rule in Western India during a crucial period for Jainism's spread.[90][91][92] Archaeological context is provided by theBava Pyara caves nearJunagadh,Gujarat.[93][94] Likely originating as Buddhist shelters, they show clear evidence of Jain occupation and modification during the Saka-Kshatrapa period (c. 1st-4th c. CE), confirmed by iconography and a fragmentary inscription.[93] The nearbyTalaja Caves, also primarily Buddhist, show similar evidence of later Jain use, including the unique "Ebhal Mandapa" structure.[citation needed] KingSalivahana (late 1st century CE), associated with conflicts against the Sakas, is also mentioned in Jain legends as a patron, though this is historically uncertain.[95]
The most definitive epigraphic evidence of early royal patronage comes from the Hathigumpha inscription atUdayagiri, Odisha.[72][73] Dated to the 2nd or 1st century BCE, it details the life of EmperorKharavela of theMahameghavahana dynasty.[72][73] It begins with theNavkar Mantra and records Kharavela, a patron of Jainism, restoring the "Kalinga Jina" taken by the Nandas and constructing numerous cave dwellings for monks.[72][73]
This inscription is the centerpiece of theUdayagiri and Khandagiri Caves site, a complex of over 30 rock-cut monasteries (gumphas) built for Jain ascetics.[72][73] The most elaborate of these, the two-storiedRanigumpha (Queen's Cave), features extensive sculptural friezes depicting Jain symbols, stories, and royal processions, providing a monumental testament to the flourishing of Jainism as a state religion in Kalinga.[72][73]
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The most extensive archaeological evidence for early Jainism comes from theKankali Tila site inMathura, which was a major Jain center for over a millennium.[98] Excavations have yielded:
Under the Kushanas (c. 1st–3rd c. CE), the Mathura school was at its peak, producing a vast quantity of dated sculptures that provide a firm chronology for Jain art.[citation needed]
Epigraphic evidence confirms the traditional narrative of Jainism's early spread south.[103] ThePugalur inscriptions (c. 2nd c. CE) nearKarur,Tamil Nadu, record the construction of a rock shelter for a Jain monk by aChera king.[104][105] OtherTamil-Brahmi inscriptions at sites like theEdakkal Caves (c. 3rd c. CE) andArachalur Musical Inscription (c. 2nd c. CE) further attest to this.[104][105][106]
Samantabhadra is said to have lived from 150 CE to 250 CE. He was from southern India during the time of Cholas. He was a poet, logician, eulogist and an accomplished linguist.[107] He is credited with spreadingJainism in southern India.[108]Umaswati was an Indian scholar, possibly between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, known for his foundational writings on Jainism.[109][110] He authored theJain textTattvartha Sutra (literally '"All That Is", also calledTattvarthadhigama Sutra).[111]
Jainism maintained a significant presence and received patronage during theGupta Empire (c. 4th-6th c. CE).[citation needed] This is attested by epigraphy, such as a 425 CE inscription from theUdayagiri Caves inMadhya Pradesh (distinct from the Odisha site), which records the installation of a Parshvanatha statue duringKumaragupta I's reign.[citation needed]
This period also saw the beginning of major structural temple complexes; the earliesttemples at the important Deogarh site (Uttar Pradesh) date from the 6th century.[citation needed] Beyond monumental art, this era demonstrates a sophisticated tradition of Jain metal-casting.[citation needed] TheChausa hoard (Bihar, c. 1st-3rd c. CE) is considered the earliest-known group of Jain bronzes.[citation needed] This tradition flourished into the Gupta period, as evidenced by major finds like theAkota Hoard (Gujarat, 5th c.), which contained a large cache of high-qualitytirthankara images.[citation needed] In Western India, early rock-cut activity from this period is evident at theDhank Caves inGujarat (c. 4th-7th c. CE), which contain earlytirthankara sculptures.[citation needed]
The division of Jainism into its two main sects, theDigambara ("sky-clad") and theŚvetāmbara ("white-clad"), was a gradual process of divergence in monastic practice and doctrine.[112] While traditional narratives place the split as early as the 4th century BCE, modern scholarly consensus, based on archaeological and literary evidence, suggests the divergence began around the 1st century CE and was finalized in the 3rd to 5th centuries CE.[113][114]
The scholarly understanding of the schism is based on the parallel timing of the formalization of each sect's distinct art and literature, which all appear to date from the Gupta and post-Gupta periods.[citation needed]
This convergence of evidence—the first distinctŚvetāmbara art (Akota) and the foundationalDigambara philosophy (Kundakunda)—both appearing in the 3rd-6th century CE, along with theŚvetāmbara canon's codification (Vallabhi), leads most historians to identify this as the period of the schism's definitive formation.[129]
The traditional narratives, while not considered the historical cause by most modern scholars, are foundational to each sect's identity and explain their interpretation of the split.[130]
The split was formalized over five key disagreements:[citation needed]
A text on differences betweenDigambara andSvetambara sects of Jainism was composed byHemraj Pande in 1652 namedChaurasi Bol.[140]
The Classical Age saw Jainism reach a zenith of influence and artistic production, particularly in the Deccan, under the patronage of major dynasties.[citation needed]
Jain monastic and artistic activity continued at other sites, such as theMangi-Tungi caves, which feature a large collection of medieval (c. 12th c.) rock-cuttirthankara sculptures.[citation needed] Jain monasticism also utilized large natural cave systems, as evidenced by theBelum Caves inAndhra Pradesh, where archaeological finds confirm a long period of occupation.[citation needed] In theAndhra region, sites like theUndavalli Caves show a complex history, with scholars suggesting an early Jain or Buddhist foundation (c. 4th-5th c. CE) before their later conversion to Hindu use.[citation needed]
Further south, Jainism flourished underPandya patronage around the 8th-9th centuries inTamil Nadu.[citation needed] This era saw the creation of the renowned Jain murals atSittanavasal Cave, the extensive rock-cut reliefs atKalugumalai, the numerous inscriptions and reliefs atSamanar Hills nearMadurai, and the Jain temple and paintings atArmamalai cave.[160][161] Later sites likeThirakoil (c. 8th c.) andTirumalai demonstrate continuity withChola-era paintings and large sculptures.[citation needed]
Jainism entered a period of significant prosperity in Western India, particularly inGujarat andRajasthan, under theChaulukya dynasty (c. 950–1300 CE).[citation needed] While the monarchs were oftenShaivite, many of their ministers and powerful merchants were devout Jains.[citation needed] This patronage funded a period of extensive artistic and architectural development, characterized by temple complexes noted for their intricate carving.[citation needed]
Other dynasties in the region also supported Jainism.[164][165] TheShilahara dynasty (c. 8th–13th c.), which ruled parts of Maharashtra and theKonkan coast, were patrons of Jainism, funding temples in the region.[164][165][166]
This architectural development was accompanied by other forms of material culture.[citation needed] TheAkota andVasantgarh bronze hoards, with images dating from the 5th to 11th centuries, demonstrate a continuous tradition of metal casting.[citation needed] Furthermore, theshastra bhandars (libraries) of Gujarat from this period preserved the earliest surviving examples of illuminated Jain palm-leaf manuscripts, which are a primary source for theShvetambara textual and artistic tradition.[citation needed]
Jainism maintained a significant presence in Central India, often under the patronage of local dynasties.[citation needed] This influence is demonstrated through major architectural projects and portable art:[citation needed]
Evidence for a widespread Jain community is also found in material culture, such as theHansi hoard (Haryana, c. 8th-9th c. CE), which contained numerous Jain bronze images.[citation needed]
Jainism maintained a significant presence in Eastern India, often under the patronage of local dynasties.[citation needed]
Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near Buddhist and Hindu temples in the 1st millennium CE.[175] The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour.[176][177] Similarly numerous temple complexes feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, withBadami cave temples andKhajuraho among some of the most well known.[178][179]
Jainism faced persecution during Lingayat movements in Telugu and Kannada speaking territories likeWodeyar of Mysore and Ummatur (1399–1610), Nayaks of Keladi (1550–1763).[180] In 1683, they stamped thelingam symbol in the main temple complex of Jains inHalebidu. Digambaras were forced to perform Shaiva rites.[181] According tovon Glasenapp writing in the 1920s, it is saidHoysala kingVishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) converted from Jainism and became a follower ofRamanuja.[182] According to more contemporary scholars such asT. K. Tukol, the rule ofBitti Deva did not persecute or force convert Jains. He converted, but his queen Shantaladevi remained a Jain. She was a patron of art and built Jain temples.[183] Bittideva's general and prime minister Gangaraja, states Tukol, was a Jain who under the guidance of his Guru Subhachandra did many acts of piety and religion to advance the cause of Jainism.[183] Bittideva employed a female general who was a Jain lady named Jakkiyabbe. His era saw temples being installed for all 24 Tirthankaras.[183] TheVijayanagara Empire kingBukka Raya I, states von Glasenapp, ensured that both Vaishnava and Jaina traditions enjoyed same cultural and religious freedoms, and helped repair Jain temples.[182]Anandatirtha, a Hindu thinker, preached a dualistic theology, which attracted many Jains to convert to Hinduism.[182]
Jainism faced persecution during and after theMuslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent.[184] The Muslim who conquered parts of Northern India, likeMahmud Ghazni (1001 CE) andMohammad Ghori (1175 CE), oppressed the Jain community.[185] This period witnessed the destruction of Jain temples, their pilgrimage centers and other forms of persecution.[citation needed]
According to British era scholar von Glasenapp, during the 11th century,Basava, a minister to the Digambara Jain kingBijjala II, converted numerous Jains to Lingayatism who was hostile to Digambaras. According to legend, they destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use.[186] A saint named Ekdanta Ramaya further propagated the loosely existing Lingayatism. He convinced Bijjala II to grant a land near Abdlur for a temple of Shiva.[180]
According toPaul Dundas, in and after the 12th century, Muslim destruction caused Jain scholars to revisit their theory ofAhimsa (non-violence). For example,Jinadatta Suri in the 12th century, wrote during a time of widespread destruction of Jain temples and blocking of Jaina pilgrimage by Muslim armies, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody" in self-defense would not lose merit.[187]
According to Jain texts, some of the Hindu gods are blood relatives of legendarytirthankara. Neminatha, the 22ndtirthankara for example is a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other texts.[188] However, Jain scholars such asHaribhadra also wrote satires about Hindu gods, mocking them with novel outrageous stories where the gods misbehave and act unethically.[189][190] The Hindu gods are recorded by some Jain writers as persecuting, tempting, afraid of, or serving a legendary Jina before he gains omniscience. In other stories, the Hindu deities such asVishnu, orRama andSita come to pay respect to a Jina at a major Jain pilgrimage site such as Mount Satrunjaya and Mount Sammed Shikhar Ji.[191] The languid Hindu scholars rewrote the original pre historic stories into their Hindu versions. According toPaul Dundas, these satires were aimed at the Hindu lay householder community, were means to inculcate piety and subvert the actual religious teachings offered by their Jain neighbors.[189] True to their origins, Buddhist and Hindu scholars engaged in creating similar satire, mythology and parody-filled fiction targeting the Jains and each other.[192] The emergence of major philosophical ideas within Hinduism impacted Jainism. According to a 1925 publication by von Glasenapp, around the 8th century CE,Adi Shankara brought forward the doctrine ofAdvaita, and either converted Jain temples to Hindu ones or completely destroyed them.[193] The traditions ofVaishnavism andShaivism also began to emerge. This, states von Glasenapp, contributed to a decline of "Jaina church", particularly in South India.[194]
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TheSiddhachal Caves andGopachal rock-cut Jain monuments are a part of nearly 100 Jain monuments found in and around the Gwalior Fort, all dated to be from the 14th to 15th centuries.[citation needed] The inscriptions found near the monuments credit them to the Tomar kings, and they range from the 1440 to 1453 CE. The Siddhachal Caves were complete by about 1473 CE.[citation needed] The Siddhanchal colossi were defaced and desecrated around 1527 when theBabur ofMughal dynasty ordered their destruction.[195][196][197]
After the 12th century, the temples, pilgrimage andDigambara tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception ofAkbar whose respect forHiravijaya and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival ofParyushana.[198]Akbar (1542–1605), influenced by the Śvetāmbara monkHiravijaya, ordered the release of caged birds and banned the killing of animals during the Jain festival ofParyushana.[199] After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th century.[200] Jain scholars of the Mughal era debated religious ideas with Muslim scholars.[201] Hiravijaya asserts that the two religions are different, Islam involves violence, while Jainism is based on compassion.[201] Jain scholars were supportive of Akbar and Jain texts praise his religious tolerance.[201]
Ranakpur Jain Temple: Built in the 15th century, this temple reflects a continuation of the Western Indian style.[citation needed] It has a complexChaumukha (four-faced) plan and is known for its hall of 1,444 carved pillars; a local tradition states that no two are identical.[citation needed]
Bhamashah (28 June 1547 – 1600)[202] was a noted general, minister, and close aide ofMaharana Pratap. The financial support provided by him helped Maharana Pratap to restore his army and reclaim much of his lost territory.[203]
Diwan Todar Mal was anOswal Śvetāmbara Jain andDewan in the court of Mughal Nawab ofSirhind, Wazir Khan.[204][205][36] InSikh history, he is remembered for buying a small piece of land at a very huge price saying the world's costliest land ever bought for the cremation of the dead bodies ofMata Gujri, the mother andSahibzada Zorawar Singh andBaba Fateh Singh, the two younger sons of 10thSikh Guru,Guru Gobind Singh in 1704 A.D, by paying an exorbitant price to the Wazir Khan 'Governor Of Sirhind'. He had to cover the whole piece of land with gold coins (ashrafis) in a vertical position, as he was asked to vertically place gold coins on the land and only that much land was given to him which he could cover with gold coins. He later also made arrangements for their cremation.[206] But, according toHarjinder Singh Dilgeer, the bodies of all the three were cremated by the descendants of Todar Mall Shahjahani because the latter had already died in 1665–66.[207] Todar Mal, however had to bear the brunt of Wazir Khan's wrath, and he and his family had to abandon the haveli soon after, and themselves faded into oblivion, with dilapidated building being their only reminder. In the coming years, the haveli fell into rapid disrepair, and collapsed at many place. Though it survived ransacking of Sirhind byBanda Bahadur and during the reign of TheSikh Confederacy, the haveli was left untouched out of respect for Diwan Todar Mal.[208][209]
British era Christian invaders wrote about Jainism, but typically stereotyping it as "a coldly austere religion of pure asceticism, with no 'heart', preoccupied only with not harming microorganisms". The discussion emphasized the ascetic extremes, rather than the values. They criticized the Jain theories on non-violence stating that this value is essentially equal to "doing nothing", because it entails not "hurting" other beings, but does not demand the "positive ethic of helping someone suffering".[210] According to Jeffrey Long, these missionary writings were a distortion of Jain theology because Jainism does teach, value and has a historic record of charity, and compassion is an essential value in Jainism for spiritual development.[210]
Some Christian writers critiqued Jainism for its cosmology, with extraordinary time scales and cyclic time periods. However, Long states, the genesis theories in Christianity and other religions suffer from equivalent issues and they present the world to have been created few thousand years ago, in a short period of time.[211] Similarly, historic Christian writers critiqued the lack of "saving grace" in Jainism. For example, Sinclair Stevenson wrote in 1915 that the "heart of Jainism was empty because it lacked the saving grace of Jesus".[212]
The British colonial rule era, according to von Glasenapp in 1925, allowed Jains to pursue their religion without persecutions they had faced before.[213] Further, the British government promoted trade, which allowed members of the Jain community to pursue their traditional economic activity. According to von Glasenapp, Jain businessmen and Jainism thrived during this period, and they used their financial success during the British Raj to rebuild Jain temples. For example, the Dharmanatha temple was built in Ahmedabad (Gujarat) in 1848.[213] The British census reported a drop in Jain population between 1891 and 1921, from 1.417 million to 1.179 million. This may be from the Jain conversions to Hinduism and causes such as famines and epidemics.[213][214][215]
M. Whitney Kelting in 2001 states, in contrast, that in Gujarat and Maharashtra, British merchants actually took over the trades that Jains traditionally engaged in. This was in part responsible for major Jain community migrations during the British colonial era.[214]
The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara tradition monks.[216] The Akhil Bharatiya Digambara Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Digambaras. Digambara monkShantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and he was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[216] Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks byBritish Raj and demanded their discontinuance.[217] The colonial-era laws that banned naked monks were abolished only after India gained independence.[218]
Shrimad Rajchandra was inspired by works ofKundakunda andDigambara mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition,[219] his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neitherŚvetāmbara norDigambara, and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred asRaj Bhakta Marg,Kavipanth, orShrimadiya, which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself.[220] His teachings influencedKanji Swami,Dada Bhagwan,[221]Rakesh Jhaveri,Saubhagbhai,Lalluji Maharaj (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. Some of them established temples and institutions in his dedication and to spread his teachings. Such temples often house his pictures and images based on photographs taken in a studio in various meditation postures just a month before his death.[222] Shrimad Rajchandra's teachings have been popular in the Jain diaspora communities; mostly inEast Africa, theUnited Kingdom andNorth America.[citation needed] Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."[223] A special cover featuring him andRabindranath Tagore was published by theIndia Post on occasion ofGandhi Jayanti in 2002.[224]
Some of the other prominent monks of modern era includeGyansagar andAcharya Vidyasagar,Tarun Sagar andVidyananda.[225]
KshullakGaneshprasad Varni (29 September, 1874 – 5 September 1961) was one of the foundational figures[226] of the modern IndianDigambara intellectual tradition during the early 20th century.[227] He was the founder of several schools and institutions of advanced learning including Syadvad Mahavidyalaya atVaranasi in 1905,[228] Varanasi and Satark-Sudhataringini Digamber Jain Pathshala,[229] now Ganesh Digamber Jain Sanskrit Vidyalaya at Sagar.[citation needed]
Thus far, Sariputta, did I go in my penance? I went without clothes. I licked my food from my hands. I took no food that was brought or meant especially for me. I accepted no invitation to a meal.
Nigantha Nataputta answered The King question with fourfold restraint. "When this was said, Nigantha Nataputta said to me, 'Great king, there is the case where the Nigantha — the knotless one — is restrained with the fourfold restraint. And how is the Nigantha restrained with the fourfold restraint? There is the case where the Nigantha is obstructed by all waters, conjoined with all waters, cleansed with all waters, suffused with all waters. This is how the Nigantha is restrained with the fourfold restraint. When the Nigantha — a knotless one — is restrained with such a fourfold restraint, he is said to be a Knotless One (Nigantha), a son of Nata (Nataputta), with his self perfected, his self controlled, his self established.'"Thus, when asked about a fruit of the contemplative life, visible here and now, Nigantha Nataputta answered with fourfold restraint."[45]
Literary tradition of Western India, which also recognises Samprati as the immediate successor of Asoka, eulogizes him as an eminent patron of Jainism, who founded Jain monasteries even in non-aryan countries. Almost all ancient Jain temples or monuments of unknown origin are ascribed by the popular voice to Samprati, who is in fact, regarded as a Jain Asoka.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)The Western Chalukyas of Vatapi, Pulkesin II and Vikramaditya I, were also great patrons of Jainism.
Pulkesin II patronized the Jaina temple at Aihole, an event immortalized by the poet Ravikirti in an inscription from that place.
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)ravindra was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).jinvaani was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).varanasi was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page).originally published by Luzac & Company Ltd., London, 1951
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