Archaeological evidence indicates that the use ofInuit clothing extends far back intoprehistory, with significant evidence to indicate that its basic structure has changed little since. The clothing systems of allArctic peoples (encompassing theInuit,Iñupiat, and theindigenous peoples of Siberia and theRussian Far East) are similar, and evidence in the form of tools and carved figurines indicates that these systems may have originated inSiberia as early as 22,000 BCE, and innorthern Canada andGreenland as early as 2500 BCE. Pieces of garments found at archaeological sites, dated to approximately 1000 to 1600 CE, are very similar to garments from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, which confirms consistency in the construction of Inuit clothing over centuries.
Beginning in the late 1500s, contact with non-Inuit traders and explorers began to have an increasingly large influence on the construction and appearance of Inuit clothing. Imported tools and fabrics became integrated into the traditional clothing system, and premade fabric garments sometimes replaced traditional wear. Adoption of fabric garments was often driven by external pressure to conform to non-Inuit standards of dress, but many Inuit also adopted fabric garments for their own convenience. These voluntary adoptions were often a precursor to the decline or disappearance of traditional styles.
With an increase incultural assimilation and modernization at the beginning of the 20th century, the production of traditional skin garments for everyday use declined as a result of loss of skills combined with shrinking demand. Formal schooling, particularly during the era of theCanadian Indian residential school system, was destructive to the ongoing cycle ofInuit elders passing down knowledge to younger generations. Wider availability of manufactured clothing and reduced availability of animal pelts further reduced demand for traditional clothing. The combination of these factors resulted in a near-complete loss of traditional clothing-making skills by the 1990s.
Since that time, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. Although full outfits of traditional skin clothing are uncommon overall, they are still seen in the winter and on special occasions. Many Inuit seamstresses today use modern materials to make traditionally-styled garments, leading to the growth of an Inuit-led fashion movement, a subset ofIndigenous American fashion. In light of the growing interaction between Inuit clothing and thefashion industry, Inuit groups have raised concerns about the protection of Inuit heritage fromcultural appropriation and prevention of genericization of cultural garments like theamauti.
Archaeologicalresearch on Inuit clothing provides a great deal of insight into the origins of skin clothing system. Individual skin garments are rarely found intact at archaeological sites, as animal hide is highly susceptible to decay, so it is difficult to definitively date the origins of circumpolar skin clothing. Evidence for the earliest origins of theInuit clothing system is therefore usually inferred fromsewing tools andart objects found at archaeological sites.[1]
In what is nowIrkutsk Oblast,Siberia, archaeologists have found carvedfigurines and statuettes at sites originating from theMal'ta–Buret' culture which appear to be wearing tailored skin garments, although these interpretations have been contested. The age of these figurines indicates that a clothing system similar to that of the Inuit may have been in use in Siberia as early as 22,000 BCE.[2] Prehistoricivory figurines from theDorset culture, aPaleo-Inuit culture that lived in what is now northern Canada from approximately 500 BCE to 1500 CE, also appear to showparkas,underpants, and Inuit boots (kamiit).[a][4] Some of these Dorset figures exhibit what appear to be high collars rather than hoods, and it is not clear whether they depict figures with hoods down, or if the parkas worn in that era had no hoods at all.[5]
Tools for skin preparation and sewing made fromstone,bone, and ivory, found at prehistoric archaeological sites and consistent with later tools used by the Inuit, confirm that skin clothing was being produced in northern regions of North America andGreenland as early as 2500 BCE.[6][7] Conversely, the absence of sewing needles at summertime coastal camps indicates that the Dorset may have hadtaboos forbidding the production ofcaribou clothing at coastal sites, just as the later Inuit did.[8] Archaeological evidence of seal processing by the Dorset culture has been found at Philip's Garden in thePort au Choix Archaeological Site in the Canadian province ofNewfoundland and Labrador.Radiocarbon dating indicates use of the site spanned approximately eight centuries, from about 50 BCE at the earliest to about 770 CE at the latest.[b][9]
Figurines from theThule culture era of approximately 1000 to 1600 CE found at archaeological sites inNunavut, Canada also display features consistent with skin clothing. One ivory figure fromSouthampton Island displays chest straps reminiscent of the woman's parka, theamauti. A wooden figurine fromEllesmere Island actually has miniature trousers made of bear skin, a feature which Inuit skin clothing expertBetty Kobayashi Issenman noted was, to her knowledge, completely unique on prehistoric figurines.[10] Thule-era ivory figurines collected inIgloolik in 1939 show the large hoods characteristic of theamauti, as well as the rounded tails of women's parkas.[11]
Occasionally, scraps of frozen skin garments or even whole garments are found at archaeological sites. It can be difficult to determine the era of origin owing to the delicacy of these items. Some are believed to come from the Dorset culture era, but the majority are believed to be from the Thule culture era of approximately 1000 to 1600 CE.[12][13] Although style elements like hood height and flap size have changed, structural elements like patterns, seam positions, and stitching of these remnants and outfits are very similar to garments from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, which confirms significant consistency in construction of Inuit clothing over centuries.[14] For example, one Dorset-era boot sole fromKimmirut (formerly Lake Harbour), Nunavut, dated to 200 CE, is constructed with an identical style to modern boots.[13]
Thule-era garments are similarly consistent with later items, which suggests that the Inuit skin clothing system directly evolved from the Thule system.[11] AtDevon Island in Nunavut, Canada, several pieces of frozen skin clothing were found in an archaeological dig conducted in 1985; these items, including an intact child's mitten, have been dated to the early Thule era, around 1000 CE.[15] The pattern and stitching of these garments matches those of modern garments.[16] Clothing items including akamleika, a type of overcoat made of gut-skin, were found at a dig site on Ellesmere Island in 1978. They have been dated to 1200 CE, and are consistent with 20th century gut-skin coats.[10] A group of eight well-preserved and fully dressedmummies were found atQilakitsoq, anarchaeological site onNuussuaq Peninsula, Greenland, in 1972. They have been carbon-dated toc. 1475, and extensive research on these garments indicates that they were prepared and sewn in the same manner as modern skin clothing from theKalaallit people of the region.[17] Archaeological digs inUtqiaġvik, Alaska from 1981 to 1983 uncovered the earliest known samples of caribou and polar bear skin clothing of theKakligmiut group ofIñupiat, dated to approximately 1510–1826.[18] The construction of these garments indicates that Kakligmiut garments underwent little change between approximately 1500–1850.[19][20]
As a result of socialization and trade, Inuit groups throughout their history incorporated clothing designs and styles between themselves, as well as from other Indigenous Arctic peoples such as theChukchi,Koryak, andYupik peoples ofSiberia and theRussian Far East, theSámi people ofScandinavia, and various non-InuitNorth American Indigenous groups.[21][22] There is evidence indicating that prehistoric and historic Inuit gathered in largetrade fairs to exchange materials and finished goods; the trade network that supported these fairs extended across some 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of Arctic territory.[23]
Due to a lack of records, it is difficult to pin down the earliest point of contact between Europeans and the Inuit. The Norse had colonies in Greenland from 986 to around 1410, and the Thule began migrating there from North America as early as 800; contact between the groups is believed to have occurred after 1150.[24][25] Historical records and archaeology indicate that the groups traded as well as fought, and that the Norse did not appear to adopt garments or hunting techniques from the Inuit, who they calledskrælings.[26]
Europeans had little contact with the Inuit in the following centuries. Occasionally, sailors would kidnap Inuit from what is nowLabrador and bring them to Europe to be exhibited and studied. The Europeans conducting these exhibitions sometimes produced images and written records of their captives, particularly their clothing. The earliest known European depictions of living Inuit were advertisingbroadsides printed in Germany in 1567, which depict an anonymous Inuk woman and her child who had been kidnapped from Labrador in 1566.[27]
The first real expansion of contact with the Inuit was prompted by the voyages ofMartin Frobisher, who from 1576 to 1578 made several attempts to seek theNorthwest Passage in theNorth American Arctic, necessitating contact with the Inuit. Subsequently, hundreds of European ships arrived to hunt seals and whales, trade with the Inuit, and continue the search for the Northwest Passage.[28] Europeans continued to document the details of Inuit clothing during this time, producing the first detailed visual records of Inuit garments. The clothing styles they depict are largely consistent throughout the centuries. For example, Issenman notes that the 1567 broadsides are consistent with a 1654 painting depicting Kalaallit Inuit in traditional skin clothing.[27] In turn, the Kalaallit clothing in that image is similar to that found with the bodies at Qilakitsoq.[29]
After the arrival of Frobisher and his imitators, contact with non-Inuit, especially traders and explorers from America, Europe, and Russia, began to have a greater influence on the construction and appearance of Inuit clothing.[30] Clothing-related items brought by foreigners includetrade goods like steel needles and fabric as well as pre-made European garments.[31] While imported garments never fully replaced the traditional clothing complex of the Inuit, they did gain a significant degree of traction in many areas.[32] Figures carved by Inuit following contact include details that indicate the wide adoption of fabric clothing.[4]
Christian missionaries played a significant part in influencing Inuit communities to adopt non-Inuit or "Southern" clothing.[33] Missionaries imposed areligious taboo on nudity where none existed before. Women's clothing was seen as particularly inappropriate, as the cut of certain garments could expose their trousers or even their bare thighs, so they were often pressured into wearing long skirts or dresses to conceal their legs.[34][35][36] Adoption of Southern clothes, especially formalwear such as coats and ties, was taken as a visual signifier of conversion to Christianity.[37]
International trade, particularly in the form of thefur trade and thewhaling industry, was also implicated in unwanted changes to Inuit clothing. After establishing a trading post onKodiak Island,Alaska, in 1783, Russian traders prevented the Inuit there from usingsea otter and bear pelts for traditional garments, preferring to sell these valuable pelts internationally.[38] Similarly, in the mid-1800s, Inuit in West Greenland began to sell their pelts rather than making clothes from them, as the newly introducedcash economy made their previoussubsistence lifestyle difficult to maintain.[39] After the expansion of thewhaling industry in the Canadian Arctic around the middle of the 19th century, many Inuit men took jobs onwhaling ships.[31] The whaling season extended through the fall until November, overlapping the traditional hunting season for caribou. As a result, many men who worked on whalers were unable to secure enough caribou skins to make appropriate winter clothing, which in turn limited their ability to hunt in the winter, sometimes leading to the starvation of their families.[40]
Although much of the drive towards adoption of foreign garments around this time came from external pressure, many Inuit also adopted foreign materials and garments on their own initiative, trading or purchasing for ready-made fabric and clothing. In Canada, these items mostly came from theHudson's Bay Company (HBC), and in Greenland, from theRoyal Greenland Trading Department (RGTD).[41][42][43] Men in particular embraced ready-made cloth garments more readily than women, as suitable foreign equivalents were available for most men's clothing.[44] In Greenland, many Inuit men readily adoptedlopapeysa, traditional Icelandic sweaters.[45] Men from the Nunavimiut or Ungava Inuit group fromUngava Bay adoptedcrocheted woolen hats for beneath their hoods.[46] Most Inuit men working on whaling ships across the Arctic adopted cloth garments completely during the summer, generally retaining only their waterproofsealskinkamiit.[47][32]
While Inuit men easily adopted outside clothing, the women'samauti, specifically tailored to its function as a mother's garment, had no European ready-made equivalent. Instead, Inuit women used purchased cloth to create garments that suited their needs.[44] Beginning in the middle of the 19th-century, theIñupiaq people of northern Alaska began to use colorful cotton fabrics likedrill andcalico to make over-parkas to protect their caribou garments from dirt and snow.[48][49] Men's were shorter while women's were calf-length with ruffled hems. InIñupiaq these garments are calledatikłuk, while inInuktitut, spoken in Canada, they are calledsilapaaq.[50][51] The longer women's version eventually made its way eastward through theMackenzie River delta in theNorthwest Territories, where it became known as the cloth parka or Mother Hubbard parka (from the EuropeanMother Hubbard dress).[48][50][49] The Mother Hubbard parka was originally worn with the furamauti (overtop or underneath), but later styles were insulated withduffel cloth or fur and could be worn on their own, especially during summer.[52] These garments were valued by women as they were simple to make compared to the intensive process of making skin clothing. Their exotic materials were considered a sign of wealth and status.[32][48]
Voluntary adoptions of outside clothing styles were a precursor to the decline or disappearance of traditional styles in many areas. Inuit from disparate groups and tribes often mixed at camps and trading posts set up by European traders, trading their techniques and styles, which muted local differences in styles of clothing.[53][54] In the 1880s, the establishment of an RGTD trading post on the east coast of Greenland greatly increased the availability of foreign garments, which led to the simplification and decline of traditional Inuit skin garments in the area.[55] In 1914, the arrival of the Canadian Arctic Expedition in the territory of the previously-isolated Copper Inuit prompted the virtual disappearance of the unique Copper Inuit clothing style, which by 1930 was almost entirely replaced by a combination of styles imported by newly immigrated Inuvialuit and European-Canadian clothing, particularly the Mother Hubbard parka.[56] Although the Mother Hubbard only arrived there in the late 19th century, it largely eclipsed historical styles of clothing to the point where it is now seen as the traditional women's garment in those areas.[56][57]
Cross-cultural adoption of clothing was hardly one-sided. During this period, non-Inuit whalers, missionaries, and explorers all made use of Inuit clothing, which was known to be extremely effective for the climate.[58][59][37] Social and economic factors also played a part in driving non-Inuit to adopt skin clothing.[60] Because there was less effort to colonize the Arctic regions with white settlers when compared to more temperate regions, some Europeans may have felt less social pressure to wear European clothing.[61] For others, adopting Inuit clothing signified their own prowess in surviving a difficult environment.[60][37] Inuitoral history records that some explorers, such asGraham Rowley, were known for wearing their skin garments poorly.[62]
European whalers sometimes adopted Inuit garments for Arctic travel, occasionally even going so far as to hire entire families of Inuit to travel with them and sew skin clothing.[58][63] Use of Inuit clothing reportedly reduced deaths from exposure on whaling ships.[59][64] By the mid-1800s, it was common for American and British polar explorers to trade for or commission Inuit garments.[59] Canadian explorersDiamond Jenness andVilhjalmur Stefansson lived with the Inuit during theCanadian Arctic Expedition (1913–1916), adopting Inuit clothing and making in-depth studies of its construction.[64][65] The Scandinavian personnel of theFifth Thule Expedition (1922–1924) did the same.[65]
Some explorers positioned their adoption of Inuit clothing as amarketing strategy to drive interest and funding for their expeditions.[60] Historian Sarah Pickman argues that famous polar explorers likeRobert Peary,Roald Amundsen, andRobert Scott promoted their use or rejection of Inuit clothing as evidence of their own adventuring skill.[59] Peary, like many other explorers, sold photographs of himself in striking Inuit-style outfits and sometimes appeared at lectures wearing furs.[66] He often claimed that his use of Inuit technology was a unique factor in his success as an Arctic explorer, despite the fact that plenty of previous explorers had used Inuit technology.[67]
Adoption of Inuit clothing principles was instrumental in earlyexploration of Antarctica. Physician and explorerFrederick Cook had encountered Greenlandic Inuit as part of Peary'sexpedition to Greenland of 1891–1892, and believed that Inuit clothing and travel methods would be useful in Antarctica.[68] Like Peary, he toured thelecture circuit, dressing in furs to raise funds for an Antarctic expedition, although it never materialized.[69] He later brought skin garments he had commissioned to theBelgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897–1899, where he and Amundsen met and exchanged ideas about polar exploration.[70][71] When theAmundsen and Scott South Pole expeditions are compared, Amundsen's use of Inuit-style clothing is regarded as a significant factor in the success ofhis expedition, while Scott's preference for British textiles is considered a major failure point inhis own.[72] Amundsen wrote that his detailed preparations, including his extensive study of the clothing of theNetsilingmiut Inuit, had been paramount in his success.[73] In contrast, Scott promoted his rejection of Inuit furs in favor of traditional British textile-based expedition gear as a point of nationalistic pride.[74]
Wearing skin clothing did not necessarily indicate respect for the Inuit and their practices.[59] Missionaries readily adopted Inuit clothing and wrote of its effectiveness, but their goal was to supplant Inuit culture with Christianity.[37] Many explorers continued to treat Inuit with condescension even as they appropriated their traditional garments.[59] Peary never learned more than a few words of Inuktitut despite his nearly twelve years in the Arctic, and wrote that Inuit were valuable assistants but "of course they could not lead".[67] Amundsen acknowledged Inuit mastery of polar survival skills, but wrote of them as "savages" and never included Inuit members in his expeditions.[75]
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The production of traditional skin garments for everyday use has declined in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries as a result of loss of skills combined with shrinking demand. Lifestyle change as a result of outside influence was a significant factor in the decline of skin clothing. This peaked in the 19th and 20th centuries when the presence of non-Inuit missionaries, researchers, explorers, and government officials significantly increased in Inuit communities.[76]
Few modern Inuit maintain the nomadic hunting-trapping lifestyle of their ancestors, instead spending much of their time indoors inheated buildings.[77] Many Inuit in Northern Canada work outdoor industrial jobs for which fur clothing, particularlykamiit, would be impractical.[78] Purchasing manufactured clothing saves time and energy compared to the intensive workload involved in making traditional skin clothing, and it can be easier to maintain.[79]
The introduction of theCanadian Indian residential school system to northern Canada, beginning with the establishment of Christianmission schools in the 1860s, was extremely destructive to the ongoing cycle of elders passing down knowledge to younger generations through informal means.[80][81] Children who were sent to residential schools or stayed at hostels to attend school outside their communities were often separated from their families for years, in an environment that made little to no attempt to include their language, culture, or traditional skills.[82] Children who lived at home and attended day schools were at school for long hours most days, leaving little time for families to teach them traditional clothing-making and survival skills.[83] Until the 1980s, most northern day schools did not include material on Inuit culture, compounding the cultural loss.[84][85] The time available for traditional skills was further reduced in areas of significant Christian influence, as Sundays were seen as a day of rest on which to attend church services, not to work.[86] Lacking the time and inclination to practice, many younger people lost interest in creating traditional clothing.[87]
The availability of pelts has also impacted the production of skin garments. In the early 20th century,overhunting led to a significant depletion of caribou herds in some areas.[88] Lack of materials after the 1940s caused the extinction of a style of baggy leggings or stockings worn byIglulingmiut andCaribou Inuit.[89] Many areas today have restrictions on hunting that impacts the availability of pelts. Greenland, for example, requires ahunting license, limits the number of animals that can be hunted, and setshunting seasons.[90]Climate change in Canada has resulted in decreasing seal populations and reduced availability of seal pelts.[91]
From the 1960s to the 1980s, strong opposition toseal hunting from theanimal rights movement, particularly an influential 1976Greenpeace Canada campaign, led to significant restrictions on the import ofsealskin goods in theUnited States (1972) and theEuropean Economic Community (1983).[c] These restrictions crashed the export market for seal pelts and caused a corresponding drop in hunting as a primary occupation, reducing the availability of pelts for northern seamstresses and increasingpoverty andsuicide rates among Inuit in Nunavut.[81][92][93] Income levels for Inuit dropped by a reported 95% compared to pre-ban levels.[94]
In the 1980s, theGreenlandic government launched a program to increase demand for sealskin products by subsidizing the purchase of sealskins from hunters and supporting the creation of new designs. The program has run at a deficit since it was established, as a result of the 1980s crash in sealskin prices.[95] Greenpeace Canada apologized to Inuit in 1985 for the knock-on effects of their campaign. TheEuropean Union ban on seal products was reaffirmed in 2009.[96][97] In 2015, exemptions were made in the ban for certified indigenous-hunted products, but a 2020 report described this exemption as economically ineffective.[98][99][97] The sealskin ban has never been repealed or loosened in the United States.[100] Many Inuit have criticized efforts to ban seal hunting and sealskin products as short-sighted and culturally ignorant.[81][101][102]
This combination of factors resulted in less demand for elders to create skin garments, which made it less likely that they would pass on their skills.[84] By the mid-1990s, the skills necessary to make Inuit skin clothing were in danger of being completely lost.[103][104] The decline in the use of traditional clothing coincided with an uptick in artistic depictions of traditional clothing inInuit art, which has been interpreted as a reaction to a feeling of cultural loss.[105]
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Since the 1990s, Inuit groups have made significant efforts to preserve traditional skills and reintroduce them to younger generations in a way that is practical for the modern world. Many educational barriers to traditional knowledge have come down. By the 1990s, both the residential schools and the hostel system in theYukon and the Northwest Territories had been abolished entirely.[d][106] In northern Canada, many schools at all stages of education have introduced courses which teach traditional skills and cultural material.[107]
Outside of the formal education system,cultural literacy programs such as Miqqut, Somebody's Daughter, Reclaiming our Sinew, and Traditional Skills Workshop, spearheaded by organizations likePauktuutit (Inuit Women of Canada) andIlitaqsiniq (Nunavut Literacy Council), have been successful in reintroducing modern Inuit to traditional clothing-making skills.[108][109] Sewing groups and classes are popular in northern communities, many featuring elders in their traditional teaching role.[110][111][112][113] Many museums now cooperate with Inuit communities in knowledge-sharing and training.[15]
On a technical level, modern-day techniques ease the time and effort needed for production, loweringbarriers to entry for new seamstresses.[114][115] Prepared skins are available at many northern supply stores today, allowing seamstresses to shop directly for their desired materials.[116]Wringer washing machines may be used to soften hides. Household chemicals likebleach orall-purpose cleaner can produce soft white leather when rubbed on skins.[114][115]Sewing machines andSerger machines make stitching more consistent and less time-consuming.[117] Many women create follow traditional patterns to make traditionally-styled garments from non-traditional materials like cloth, combining old and new techniques.[118][119]
The once-extinct ceremonial clothing of the Copper Inuit has been revived for drum gatherings and other special occasions inUlukhaktok, Northwest Territories.[e][120] The modern Inuit of Igloolik celebrateQaqqiq, the Return of the Sun, with a fashion show of caribou skin and cloth garments.[121] For many modern practitioners, sewing retains its connection toInuit spirituality.[122]
From 2016 to 2020, the Canadian government allotted $5.7 million throughFisheries and Oceans Canada to support sealing and sealskin crafts in indigenous communities, an effort promoted by NunavutMember of ParliamentHunter Tootoo, who is known for wearing sealskin accessories likeneckties andvests.[123][124] The funding has been used to facilitate sewing workshops such as Nattiq Sealebration, run by the Department of Industry, Tourism and Investment of the Northwest Territories, which teaches professional-level sewing skills and business practices. The workshop program aims to bolster the local market for fur products and support Inuit artisans.[125] In 2017, the Canadian government designated May 20 as National Seal Products Day to support Indigenous sealskin products.[126][94] As of 2023[update], the Northwest Territories government supports programs to assist artisans in acquiring hide and fur materials and accessing international markets.[127]
The northern branch of theCanadian Broadcasting Corporation,CBC North, increased its coverage of Indigenous sewing in 2022, noting it "plays a vital role in the ongoing cultural revival throughout the North".[128] In April that year, women inPangnirtung, Nunavut sewedamauti to donate to women fleeing theRussian invasion of Ukraine with their children.[129] In May 2022,Rankin Inlet seamstress Augatnaaq Eccles sewed a parka depicting the colonialist history oftuberculosis sanatoriums in the North.[130] She was invited to bring the parka toParliament Hill that year for the second annualNational Day for Truth and Reconciliation.[131] Beginning in 2023, a group of Inuit artists and seamstresses called Agguaq began working with museums in order to study ancient garments with an eye to reviving and modernizing the designs.[132]
Many Inuit wear a combination of traditional skin garments, garments which use traditional patterns with imported materials, and mass-produced imported clothing, depending on the season and weather, availability, and the desire to be stylish.[133] The fabric-basedatikłuk and the Mother Hubbard parka remain popular and fashionable in Alaska and Northern Canada, respectively.[134] Mothers from all occupations still make use of theamauti, which may be worn over fabricleggings orjeans.[135][136] Both handmade and imported garments may feature logos and images from traditional or contemporaryInuit culture, such as Inuit organizations, sports teams, musical groups, or common northern foodstuffs.[54][137][138]
Store-bought garments are often repurposed or adjusted—seamstresses may add fur ruffs to the hoods of store-bought winter jackets, and boot tops made of skin may be sewn to mass-produced rubber boot bottoms to create a boot that combines the warmth of skin clothing with the waterproofing and grip of artificial materials.[139][140] Traditional patterns may be revised to account for modern needs:amauti are sometimes made with shorter tails for comfort while driving.[54]
Although it is uncommon for modern Inuit to wear complete outfits of traditional skin clothing, fur boots, coats and mittens are still popular in many Arctic places. Skin clothing is preferred for winter wear, especially for Inuit who make their living outdoors in traditional occupations such as hunting and trapping, or modern work like scientific research.[92][104][141][142] Traditional skin clothing is also preferred for special occasions like drum dances, weddings, and holiday festivities.[142][143]
Even garments made from woven or synthetic fabric today adhere to ancient forms and styles in a way that makes them simultaneously traditional and contemporary.[144][145] Modern Inuit clothing has been studied as an example ofsustainable fashion andvernacular design.[146][147] Much of the clothing worn today by Inuit dwelling in the Arctic has been described as "a blend of tradition and modernity."[79] Issenman describes the continued use of traditional fur clothing as not simply a matter of practicality, but "a visual symbol of one's origin as a member of a dynamic and prestigious society whose roots extend into antiquity."[79]
Beginning in the 1990s,Pauktuutit (Inuit Women of Canada) began to promote Inuit fashion andculture outside of theCanadian Arctic by collaborating with Canadian museums, exhibitions, and festivals to showcase Inuit-designed garments.[148][149] The response to these events was positive, and in 1998, Pauktuutit launched a program called "The Road to Independence", which aimed to promote Inuit women's economic independence by providing them the skills to design, produce, and sell garments in the contemporaryfashion industry.[150] The program was successful, but raised concerns that traditionalInuit clothing pieces, especially the woman's parka oramauti, might be appropriated and genericized by non-Inuit, in the same way that Inuit cultural developments likekayaks,parkas, and to some extent evenkamiit have.[148][149]
In 1999, American designerDonna Karan ofDKNY sent representatives to the western Arctic to purchase traditional garments, includingamauti, to use as inspiration for an upcoming collection.[151][148] Her representatives did not disclose the purpose of their visit to the local Inuit, who only became aware of the nature of the visit after a journalist contacted Inuit women's group Pauktuutit seeking comment. Pauktuutit described the company's actions as exploitative, stating "the fashion house took advantage of some of the less-educated people who did not know their rights."[152] The items they purchased were displayed at the company'sNew York boutique, which Pauktuutit believed was done without the knowledge or consent of the original seamstresses.[149] After a successful letter-writing campaign organized by Pauktuuit, DKNY cancelled the proposed collection.[151][148]
In 2001, following concerns raised by the Road to Independence project and the subsequent DKNY controversy, Pauktuutit launched the Amauti Project, which aimed to order to explore potential methods for legally protecting theamauti as an example oftraditional knowledge collectively owned by all Inuit women.[153] After consultation with numerous Inuit seamstresses, the project released a report which concluded, "All Inuit own the amauti collectively, though individual seamstresses may use particular designs that are passed down between generations."[151][153] To safeguard that collective cultural ownership, Pauktuutit has lobbied theCanadian federal government and theWorld Intellectual Property Organization to create a special protected status for theamauti, but as of 2020[update], no such protection has been established.[154]
The growth of Inuit fashion is supported by national organizations like Pauktuutit andInuit Tapiriit Kanatami, as well as local development associations like theNunavut Arts and Crafts Association and theNunavut Development Corporation.[155][156] Contemporary Inuit fashion has been featured inart exhibitions andfashion shows within the Arctic and outside of it.[156][157] In 2016,Quebec art collective Axe Néo-7 held an exhibition of contemporary Inuit art,Floe Edge, which featured modern sealskin fashion by Inuit designers:lingerie by Nala Peter andhigh heels byNicole Camphaug.[98][158] In 2017, Martha Kyak was the first Inuk designer to be featured at the Indigenius Art Music and Fashion Show inOttawa.[159] Inuit designersVictoria Kakuktinniq and Melissa Attagutsiak were invited to show at the Indigenous Fashion Week event atParis Fashion Week in March 2019.[156][160] In 2020, theWinnipeg Art Gallery launched an exhibition calledInuk Style featuring both historical and contemporary Inuit fashion.[161] Kakuktinniq also presented atNew York Fashion Week in February 2020.[162] Kyak presented atVancouver Fashion Week in 2022.[163]
Inuit fashion is a subset of the widerIndigenous American fashion movement. Contemporary Inuit and northern designers use a mix of modern and traditional materials to create garments in both traditional and modern silhouettes. Victoria Kakuktinniq's work, which has been cited as a major influence in the modernization of Inuit fashion, focuses on parkas with traditional styling.[156][164] Melodie Haana-SikSik Lavallée combined satin with sealskin to make items that ranged from "Victorian gowns and bustiers to flapper-inspired dresses and 60s-inspired suits".[165] Many designers also make jewellery from local or sustainable materials such as bone.[156][160]
Some designers center aspects of Inuit culture through the visual design of their products. Artist and designer Becky Qilavvaq has produced garments printed with Inuit song lyrics and images of traditional tools.[166] Similarly, designer Adina Tarralik Duffy has producedonesies and leggings printed with the packaging designs found on common northern food products like McCormicksPilot Biscuits and Klikcanned ham.[167] Martha Kyak's clothing incorporates geometric designs that originated with traditionalInuit tattooing.[168]
Those who focus on traditional materials such as sealskin often do so in support of traditionalInuit culture and the promotion ofsustainable fashion.[81][98][169] Designer Rannva Simonsen, aFaroe Islander who emigrated to Nunavut in 1997, has been working with sealskin since 1999.[81][170] Nicole Camphaug originally started by experimenting with sewing sealskin scraps to her own boots, eventually turning to commercial sales of seal-trimmed shoes after friends and family asked for their own.[171] The use of sealskin, a traditional Inuit clothing material, has been controversial among non-Inuit due to the influence of anti-sealing campaigns byanimal rights groups such as Greenpeace Canada andPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA).[81][92][101] Since the late 2010s, some designers have reported that Canadians outside the Arctic appeared to be increasingly supportive of Inuit sealskin fashion.[81][172]
E-commerce, particularly viasocial media platforms such asFacebook andInstagram, has facilitated the popularity and sales of Inuit-designed clothing outside northern communities.[173][174][94] This has sometimes generated controversy: Inuit crafters and clothing designers have had sales listings for seal products blocked on social media sites.[175] Throat singerTanya Tagaq had her Facebook account suspended in 2017 after posting a photo of a sealskin coat; Facebook apologized and reversed the action within hours.[176]
The intersection between traditional Inuit clothing and the non-Inuit or "Southern"fashion industry has often been contentious. Inuit seamstresses and designers have described instances of non-Inuit designers making use of traditional Inuit design motifs and clothing styles without obtaining permission or giving credit. In some cases, designers have altered original Inuit designs in a way that distorts their cultural context, but continue to label the products in a way that makes them appear to be authentically Inuit.[152][177] Inuit designers have criticized this practice ascultural appropriation.[151][178][179]
The fashion industry has taken inspiration from Inuit clothing since thepolar exploration craze of the late 19th to early 20th centuries.[180] Thefur coat, in the sense of a full-length coat made with fur covering the exterior, did not appear in European fashion until this time – historically, fur had been used as a trim or a liner, but usually not as the basis for an entire garment. Fashion historian Jonathan Faiers argues that this trend may have been influenced by fur clothing encountered during polar exploration.[181] Theparka and thepuffer jacket, now mainstays of Southern fashion, both developed from Inuit designs.[182]
AVogue cover from 1917 depicts a model clad in white fur spearing a polar bear. Her garments, while stylized and unrealistic, appear to take visual influence from the clothing of the Greenlanic Inuit.[181] From approximately 1915 to 1921, curators at theAmerican Museum of Natural History collaborated with fashion designers to create an American clothing style inspired by Indigenous cultures of North and South America, including the Inuit.[183] In the 1920s, American designer Max Meyer drew inspiration from Inuit garments at theBrooklyn Museum.[184] The 1922 filmNanook of the North has been a popular source of inspiration to fashion designers since its release.[185]
Arctic- and Inuit-inspired clothing became trendy again in1960s fashion, with the increased popularity ofsportswear as fashion.[186]Fashion photographs of these looks often included tropes of exoticism, savagery, and barbarianism, perpetuating the dominant Southern view of Indigenous peoples as uncivilized.[186]Snow goggles, an Inuit device for protecting the eyes fromsnow blindness, were also interpreted by Southern designers during this era. French designerAndré Courrèges paired white plastic versions with hisSpace Age fashion.[187] During the 1990s, Inuit-inspired clothing returned to prominence.[188] French designerJean Paul Gaultier and American designerIsaac Mizrahi both released collections which incorporated Inuit concepts for Fall/Winter 1994, titledLe Grande Voyage andNanook of the North, respectively.[188] Icelandic artistBjörk walked the runway forVoyage in a jacket made of fur and skins.[188] Mizrahi's collection paired parkas and furs with voluminous, brightly-colored evening gowns.[189]
In 2015, London-based design house KTZ released a collection which included a number of Inuit-inspired garments. Of particular note was a sweater with designs taken directly from historical photographs of an Inuk shaman's unique caribou parka.[190] The garment, known variously as the Shaman's Parka or the InuitAngakkuq Coat, is well-known to scholars of Inuit culture; Bernadette Driscoll Engelstad described it as "the most unique garment known to have been created in the Canadian Arctic."[191][192] It was designed in the late 19th century by theangakkuqQingailisaq and sewn by his wife, Ataguarjugusiq. Either Qingailisaq or his son, theangakkuqAva, sold the coat to CaptainGeorge Comer in 1902, who brought it to theAmerican Museum of Natural History.[f][5][192] Its intricate designs, which resembleKoryak andChukchi motifs, were inspired by spiritual visions.[5] Ava's great-grandchildren criticized KTZ for failing to obtain permission to use the design from his family.[190] After the criticism was picked up by the media, KTZ issued an apology and pulled the item from the market.[193] French fashion designerJoseph Altuzarra had also drawn inspiration from the Shaman's Parka in his Fall/Winter 2012 collection, but to a lesser degree that did not result in controversy.[194]
Some brands have made efforts to work with Inuit designers directly. In 2019, Canadian winterwear brandCanada Goose launched Project Atigi, commissioning fourteen Canadian Inuit seamstresses to each design a unique parka oramauti from materials provided by Canada Goose. The designers retained the rights to their designs. The parkas were displayed in New York City and Paris before being sold, and the proceeds, which amounted to approximately $80,000, were donated to national Inuit organization Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK).[155][195] The original Project Atigi was criticized by some Inuit designers for not being sufficiently publicized to potential applicants.[196]
The following year, the company released an expanded collection called Atigi 2.0, which involved eighteen seamstresses who produced a total of ninety parkas. The proceeds from the sales were again donated to ITK. Gavin Thompson, vice-president of corporate citizenship for Canada Goose told CBC that the brand had plans to continue expanding the project in the future.[195] A parka from the original collection was displayed at theInuk Style exhibition at the Winnipeg Art Gallery in 2020.[161] In 2022, Kakuktinnniq designed acapsule collection for the third iteration of Project Atigi. The advertising campaign for the collection featured Inuit women as models: throat singerShina Novalinga, actressMarika Sila and modelWillow Allen.[197]
