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Thehistory of Guam starts with the early arrival around 2000 BC ofAustronesian people known today as theChamorro Peoples. The Chamorus then developed a "pre-contact" society, that wascolonized by the Spanish in the 17th century. The presentAmerican rule of the island began with the 1898Spanish–American War.Guam's history ofcolonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands.
The Mariana Islands were the first islands settled by humans inRemote Oceania. Incidentally it is also the first and the longest of the ocean-crossing voyages of theAustronesian peoples into Remote Oceania, and is separate from the laterPolynesian settlement of the rest of Remote Oceania. They were first settled around 1500 to 1400 BC by migrants departing from the Philippines.[1][2]
Archeological studies of human activity on the islands has revealed potteries with red-slipped, circle-stamped and punctate-stamped designs found in the Mariana Islands dating between 1500 and 1400 BC. These artifacts show similar aesthetics to pottery found in Northern and Central Philippines, the Nagsabaran (Cagayan Valley) pottery, which flourished during the period between 2000 and 1300 BC.[1]
Comparative and historical linguistics also indicate that theChamoru language is most closely related to the Indonesian Malayan subfamily of theAustronesian languages, instead of theOceanic subfamily of the languages of the rest of Remote Oceania.[1][3]
Mitchondrial DNA andwhole genome sequencing of the Chamoru people strongly support Philippine ancestry. Genetic analysis of pre-Latte period skeletons in Guam also show that they do not haveMelanesian ancestry which rules out origins from theBismarck Archipelago,New Guinea, or easternIndonesia. TheLapita culture itself (the ancestral branch of the Polynesian migrations) is younger than the first settlement of the Marianas (the earliest Lapita artifacts are dated to around 1350 to 1300 BCE), indicating that they originated from separate migration voyages.[4][5]
Nevertheless, DNA analysis also shows a close genetic relationship between ancient settlers of the Marianas and early Lapita settlers in theBismarck Archipelago. This may indicate that both the Lapita culture and the Marianas were settled by direct migrations from the Philippines, or that early settlers from the Marianas voyaged further southwards into the Bismarcks and reconnected with the Lapita people.[4]
The Marianas also later established contact and received migrations from theCaroline Islands at around the first millennium CE. This brought new pottery styles, language, genes, and the hybrid Polynesianbreadfruit.[6]
The period 900 to 1700 CE of the Marianas, immediately before and during the Spanish colonization, is known as theLatte period. It is characterized by rapid cultural change, most notably by the massivemegalithiclatte stones (also spelledlatde orlatti). These were composed of thehaligi pillars capped with another stone calledtasa (which prevented rodents from climbing the posts). These served as supports for the rest of the structure which was made of wood. Remains of structures made with similar wooden posts have also been found. Human graves have also been found in front oflatte structures. TheLatte period was also characterized by the introduction ofrice agriculture, which is unique in the pre-contactPacific Islands.[7]
The reasons for these changes are still unclear, but it is believed that it may have resulted from a third wave of migrants frommaritime Southeast Asia. Comparisons with other architectural traditions makes it likely that this third migration wave were again from the Philippines, or from easternIndonesia (eitherSulawesi orSumba), all of which have a tradition of raised buildings with capstones. Interestingly, the wordhaligi ("pillar") is also used in various languages throughout the Philippines; while the Chamoru wordguma ("house") closely resembles the Sumba worduma.[7]
Most of what is known about Pre-Contact ("Ancient") Chamorus comes from legends and myths, archaeological evidence,Jesuitmissionary accounts, and observations from visiting scientists likeOtto von Kotzebue andLouis de Freycinet.
When Europeans first arrived on Guam, Chamoru society roughly fell into three classes:matao (upper class),achaot (middle class), andmana'chang (lower class). The matao lived in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds while the mana'chang lived in the interior of the island. Matao and mana'chang rarely communicated with each other, and matao often used achaot as a go-between.
There were also "makhanas" (shamans) and "suruhanus" (herb doctors), skilled in healing and medicine.[8] Belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros calledTaotao Mona still persists as remnant of pre-European society. Early European explorers noted thesakman, the Chamoru fast sailing vessel used for trading with other islands of Micronesia.
Thelatte stones were not a recent development in Contact Chamoru society. The latte stone consists of a head and a base shaped out of limestone. Like theEaster IslandMoai statues, there is plenty of speculation over how this was done by a society without machines or metal, but the generally accepted view is that the head and base were etched out of the ground by sharp adzes and picks (possibly with the use of fire), and carried to the assembly area by an elaborate system of ropes and logs. The latte stone was used as a part of the raised foundation for a magalahi (matao chief) house, although they may have also been used for canoe sheds.
Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamoru) history into three periods: "Pre-Latte" (BC 2000? to AD 1) "Transitional Pre-Latte" (AD 1 to AD 1000), and "Latte" (AD 1000 to AD 1521). Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamoru society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, as latte stones became bigger.
Assuming the stones were used for chiefly houses, it can be argued that Chamoru society was becoming more stratified, either from population growth or the arrival of new people. The theory remains tenuous, however, due to lack of evidence, but if proven correct, will further support the idea that Pre-Contact Chamorus lived in a vibrant and dynamic environment.
The first known contact betweenGuam and Europeans occurred with the arrival of a Spanish expedition led byFerdinand Magellan. His three-ship fleet arrived on March 6, 1521, after a long voyage across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, from Spain. History credits the village ofUmatac as his landing place, but drawings from the navigator's diary suggest that Magellan may have landed inTumon in northern Guam. The expedition had started out in Spain with five ships. By the time they reached the Marianas, they were down to three ships and barely half the crew, due to storms, disease, and mutiny in one ship.[9]
When Magellan's fleet arrived at Guam, they were greeted by hundreds of smalloutrigger canoes that appeared to be flying over the water due to their considerable speed. These outrigger canoes were calledproas and resulted in Magellan naming GuamIslas de las Velas Latinas ("Islands of theLateen sails").Antonio Pigafetta (one of 18 crewmen who completed the voyage) wrote in his account that the name was "Island of Sails".
Tired and hungry from their long voyage, the crew prepared to go ashore and get food and water. However, the Chamorus had a different concept of ownership, based on subsistence living, and were very excited by the appearance of these strange vessels.[10]: 30 The Chamorus canoed out to the ships and began helping themselves to everything that was not nailed down to the deck of the galleons. "The aboriginals were willing to engage in barter... Their love of gain overcame every other consideration."[11]
Pigafetta wrote that the inhabitants "entered the ships and stole whatever they could lay their hands on," including "the small boat that was fastened to the poop of the flagship."[12]: 129 "Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on account of which we called those three islandsIslas de los Ladrones ("Islands of thieves")."[12]: 131
After a few shots were fired from theTrinidad's big guns, the natives were frightened off from the ship and retreated into the surrounding jungle. Magellan was eventually able to obtain rations and offered iron, a highly prized material, in exchange for fresh fruits, vegetables, and water. Details of this visit, the first in history between the Spanish and a Pacific island people, come from Pigafetta's journal.[9]
Despite Magellan's visit, Guam was not officially claimed by Spain until 1565 byMiguel Lopez de Legazpi. However, the island was not actually colonized until the 17th century.[13]
On June 15, 1668, thegalleonSan Diego arrived at the island of Guam.[14]Jesuit missionaries led byDiego Luis de San Vitores arrived on Guam to introduceChristianity and develop trade. The Spanish taught the Chamorus to cultivatemaize (corn), raise cattle, and tan hides, as well as to adopt western-style clothing. They also introduced the Spanish language and culture. Once Christianity was established, the Catholic Church became the focal point for village activities, as in other Spanish cities. Since 1565, Guam had been a regular port-of-call for the Spanish galleons that crossed the Pacific Ocean fromMexico to thePhilippines.[15]
Chief Quipuha was the maga'lahi, or high ranking male, in the area of Hagåtña when the Spanish landed there in 1668. Quipuha welcomed the missionaries and consented to be baptized by Fr. San Vitores as Juan Quipuha. Quipuha granted the lands on which the first Catholic Church in Guam was constructed in 1669. Chief Quipuha died in 1669 but his policy of allowing the Spanish to establish a base on Guam had important consequences for the future of the island. It also facilitated the ManilaGalleon trade.
A few years later, Fr. San Vitores and his assistant,Pedro Calungsod, were killed by ChiefMata'pang of Tomhom (Tumon), allegedly for baptizing the Chief's baby girl without the Chief's consent. This was in April 1672. Many Chamorus at the time believed baptisms killed babies: because priests would baptize infants already near death (in the belief that this was the only way to save such children's souls), baptism seemed to many Chamorus to be the cause of death.[10]: 49 The death of Quipuha, and the murder of San Vitores and Calungsod, led to a number of conflicts. Captain Juan de Santiago started a campaign to conquer the island, which was continued by the successive commanders of the Spanish forces.[16]: 68–74 TheSpanish-Chamorro Wars on Guam began in 1670 over growing tensions with the Jesuit mission, with the last large-scale uprising in 1683. After his arrival in 1674, Captain Damian de Esplana ordered the arrest of rebels who attacked the population of certain towns. Hostilities eventually led to the destruction of villages such as Chochogo, Pepura, Tumon, Sidia-Aty, Sagua, Nagan, and Ninca.[16]: 74–75 Starting in June 1676, the first Spanish Governor of Guam, Capt. Francisco de Irrisarri y Vinar, controlled internal affairs more strictly than his predecessors in order to curb tensions. He also ordered the construction of schools, roads, and other infrastructure.[16]: 75–76 In 1680, Captain Jose de Quiroga arrived and continued some of the development projects started by his predecessors. He also continued the search for the rebels who had killed Father San Vitores, resulting in campaigns against the rebels which were hiding out in some islands, eventually leading to the deaths. of Matapang, Hurao, and Aguarin.[16]: 77–78 Quiroga brought some natives from the northern islands to Guam, ordering the population to live in a few large villages.[16]: 78–79 These included Jinapsan, Umatac, Pago, Agat, and Inarajan, where he built a number of churches.[16]: 79 By July 1695, Quiroga had completed the conquest of Guam, Rota, Tinian, and Aguigan.[16]: 85 Intermittent warfare, plus the typhoons of 1671 and 1693, and in particular thesmallpox epidemic of 1688, reduced the Chamorro population from 50,000 to 10,000, finally to less than 5,000.[16]: 86
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During the course of the Spanish administration of Guam, lower birth rates and diseases reduced the population from 12,000[10]: 47 to roughly 5,000 by 1741.[17] After 1695, Chamorus settled in five villages:Hagåtña,Agat,Umatac,Pago, and Fena. During this historical period, Spanish language and customs were introduced in the island andCatholicism became the predominant religion. The Spanish built infrastructures such as roads and ports, as well as schools and hospitals. Spanish and Filipinos, mostly men, increasingly intermarried with the Chamorus, particularly the new cultured or "high" people (manak'kilo) or gentry of the towns. In 1740, Chamorus of the Northern Mariana Islands, exceptRota, were moved from some of their home islands to Guam.
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On February 26, 1767,Charles III of Spain issued a decree confiscating the property of theJesuits and banishing them from Spain and her possessions.[16]: 101 As a consequence, the Jesuit fathers on Guam departed on November 2, 1769, on the schoonerNuestra Señora de Guadalupe, abandoning their churches, rectories and ranches.[16]: 102–103
Governor Don Mariano Tobias, who arrived of on September 15, 1771, brought agricultural and civil reforms. These included making land available to the islanders for cultivation; encouraging the development of cattle raising; importing deer and water buffalo fromManila, and donkeys and mules fromAcapulco; establishing cotton mills andsalt pans; establishing free public schools; and forming the first Guam militia.[16]: 107–109 He was transferred to Manila in June 1774.[16]: 113
Spain built several defensive fortifications to protect their Pacific fleet, such asFort Nuestra Señora de la Soledad inUmatac. The Galleon Era ended in 1815 followingMexican Independence. Guam later was host to a number of scientists, voyagers, and whalers from Russia, France, and England who also provided detailed accounts of daily life on Guam under Spanish rule. Through the Spanish colonial period, Guam inherited food, language, and surnames from Spain andSpanish America.[18] Other reminders of colonial times include the old Governor's Palace inPlaza de España and the Spanish Bridge, both inHagåtña. Guam'sDulce Nombre de Maria Cathedral Basilica was formally opened on February 2, 1669, as was the Royal College of San Juan de Letran.[16]: 68 The cultures of both Guam and the Northern Marianas gained many similarities with Spanish culture due to three centuries of Spanish rule.[19]
Following theNapoleonic Wars, many Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere had become independent, shifting the economic dependence of Guam fromMexico to the Philippines.[16]: 144 Don Francisco Ramon de Villalobos, who became governor in 1831, improved economic conditions including the promotion of rice cultivation and the establishment of aleper hospital.[16]: 148–149
Otto von Kotzebue visited the island in November 1817,[16]: 127 andLouis de Freycinet in March 1819.[16]: 134 Jules Dumont d'Urville made two visits, the first in May 1828.[16]: 139 The island became a rest stop forwhalers starting in 1823.[16]: 145
A devastating typhoon struck the island on August 10, 1848, followed by a severe earthquake on January 25, 1849, which resulted in many refugees from theCaroline Islands, victims of the resultanttsunami.[16]: 151 Aftera smallpox epidemic killed 3,644 Guamanians in 1856, Carolinians and Japanese were permitted to settle in the Marianas.[16]: 157 Guam received nineteen Filipino prisoners after their failed1872 Cavite mutiny.[16]: 160 Later in 1896, more than fifty Filipino "deportados" were sent to Guam; when they attempted to escape many were killed and wounded by Chamorro artillerymen.[20]: 58
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On June 21, 1898, the United Statescaptured Guam in a bloodless landing during theSpanish–American War. By theTreaty of Paris, Spain officially ceded the island to the United States.[10]: 110–112 Between the American capture of Guam, and installation of aNaval Governor in August 1899, there was a flux in governance of the island.[20]: 61–64 Guam became part of an Americantelegraph line to thePhilippines, also ceded by the treaty;[21] a way station for American ships traveling to and from there; and an important part of the United States'War Plan Orange against Japan. AlthoughAlfred Thayer Mahan,Robert Coontz, and others envisioned the island as "a kind ofGibraltar" in the Pacific, Congress repeatedly failed to fulfill the military's requests to fortify Guam; when the German warshipSMS Cormoran wasinterned in 1914 before America's entry intoWorld War I, its crew of 543 outnumbered their American custodians.[10]: 131, 133, 135–136
Guam came to serve as a station for American merchant and warships traveling to and from thePhilippines (another American acquisition from Spain) while theNorthern Mariana Islands were sold by Spain to Germany for part of its rapidly expandingGerman Empire. A U.S. Navy yard was established atPiti in 1899, and aUnited States Marine Corps barracks atSumay in 1901.[22]: 13
During thePhilippine–American War of 1899–1902,Apolinario Mabini was exiled to Guam in 1901 after his capture.[23]: vi Mabini was one of 43 prisoners, accompanied by 15 servants, who were exiled to Guam.[24] They were imprisoned on the site of a formerleper hospital in Asan.[24] The prison was commanded by an officer of the United States Army;[25] under the army officer the guards of the facility were provided by the United States Marine Corps.[26][a] The facility was named thePresidio of Asan.[24][26] Marines assigned to the facility would rotate fromCavite every six months.[24] One of those exiled and imprisoned at the facility would be one of the first twoResident Commissioner of the PhilippinesPablo Ocampo.[25]: 428 [28] The facility closed in 1903.[29]: 24
Following the German defeat inWorld War I, theNorthern Mariana Islands became part of theSouth Seas Mandate, aLeague of Nations Mandate in 1919 with the nearbyEmpire of Japan as the mandatory ("trustee") as a member nation of the victoriousAllies in the "Great War".[19] The 1910Catholic Encyclopedia said of Guam, "of its total population of 11,490 (11,159 natives),Hagåtña, the capital, contains about 8,000. Possessing a good harbor, the island serves as a United Statesnaval station, the naval commandant acting also asgovernor. The products of the island aremaize,copra,rice,sugar, and valuabletimber."Military officers governed the island as "USSGuam", and theUnited States Navy opposed proposals for civilian government until 1950.[10]: 125–126
DuringWorld War II, Guam wasattacked and invaded byJapan on Monday, December 8, 1941, at the same time as theattack on Pearl Harbor, across the International Date Line. In addition, Japan made major military moves into Southeast Asia and theEast Indies islands of the South Pacific Ocean against the British and Dutch colonies, opening a new wider Pacific phase in the Second World War. The Japanese renamed GuamŌmiya-jima (Great Shrine Island).
TheNorthern Mariana Islands had become a League of Nations mandate assigned to Japan in 1919, pursuant to theTreaty of Versailles of 1919. IndigenousChamorro people from the Northern Marianas were brought to Guam to serve as interpreters and in other capacities for the occupying Japanese force. The Guamanian Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military. After the war, this would cause resentment between the Guamanian Chamorros and the Chamorros of the Northern Marianas. Guam's Chamorros believed their northern brethren should have been compassionate towards them, whereas having been administered by Japan for over 30 years, the Northern Mariana Chamorros were loyal to the Japanese government.[30]
TheJapanese occupation of Guam lasted for approximately 31 months, from 1941 to 1944.[31] During this period, the indigenous people of Guam were subjected to forced labor, family separation, incarceration, execution, concentration camps and forced prostitution. Approximately 1,000 people died during the occupation, according to laterCongressional committee testimony in 2004. Some historians estimate that war violence killed 10% of Guam's then 20,000 population.[32] It was a coercive experience for the Chamoru people, whose loyalty to the United States became a point of contention with the Japanese. Several American servicemen remained on the island, however, and were hidden by the Chamoru people. All of these servicemen were found and executed by Japanese forces in 1942; only one escaped.
The secondBattle of Guam began on July 21, 1944, with American troops landing on western side of the island after several weeks of pre-invasion bombardment by the U.S. Navy. After several weeks of heavy fighting, Japanese forces officially surrendered on August 10, 1944. More than 18,000 Japanese were killed as only 485 surrendered. SergeantShoichi Yokoi, who surrendered in January 1972, appears to have been the last confirmedJapanese holdout, having held out for 28 years in the forested back country on Guam.[33] The United States also captured and occupied the nearby Northern Marianas Islands.
Guam was subsequently converted into a forward operations base for the U.S. Navy and Air Force. Airfields were constructed in the northern part of the island (includingAndersen Air Force Base), the island's pre-WWIINaval Station was expanded, and numerous facilities and supply depots were constructed throughout the island. North Field was established in 1944, and was renamed for Brigadier GeneralJames Roy Andersen of the oldU.S. Army Air Forces asAndersen Air Force Base.
Guam's two largest pre-war communities (Sumay andHagåtña) were virtually destroyed during the 1944 battle. Many Chamoru families lived in temporary re-settlement camps near the beaches before moving to permanent homes constructed in the island's outer villages. Guam's southern villages largely escaped damage, however.
The immediate years afterWorld War II saw theU.S. Navy attempting to resume its predominance in Guam affairs. This eventually led to resentment, and thus increased political pressure from Chamoru leaders for greater autonomy.
The result was theGuam Organic Act of 1950 which established Guam as an unincorporatedorganized territory of the United States and, for the first time in Guam history, provided for a civilian government. In 1951, Public Law 01-12 established the new government, including a judicial branch, and an executive branch with many departments.[b][34]
TheImmigration and Nationality Act of 1952, section 307, grantedU.S. citizenship to "all persons born in the island of Guam on or after April 11, 1899. In the 1960s, the island's requiredsecurity clearance for visitors was lifted.
On September 11, 1968, eighteen years after passage of the Organic Act, Congress passed the "Elective Governor Act" (Public Law 90-497), which allowed the people of Guam to elect their own governor and lieutenant governor. Nearly four years later, Congress passed the "Guam-Virgin Islands Delegate" Act that allowed for one Guam delegate in the U.S. House of Representatives. The delegate has a voice in debates and a vote in committees, but no vote on the floor of the House.
Andersen Air Force Base played a major role in theVietnam War. The host unit was later designated the36th Wing (36 WG), assigned to thePacific Air Forces (PACAF)Thirteenth Air Force (13AF). In September 2012, 13 AF was deactivated and its functions merged into PACAF. The multinationalCope North military exercise is an annual event.[35]
Although Public Law 94-584 established the formation of a "locally drafted" constitution (later known as the "Guam Constitution"), the proposed document was rejected by Guam residents in anAugust 4, 1979 referendum.
In the meantime, Guam's local government had formed several political status commissions to address possible options forself-determination. The following year after passage of the Guam Delegate Act saw the creation of the "Status Commission" by the Twelfth Guam Legislature.
This was followed by the establishment of the "Second Political Status Commission" in 1975 and the Guam "Commission on Self-Determination" (CSD) in 1980. The Twenty-Fourth Guam Legislature established the "Commission on Decolonization" in 1996 to enhance CSD's ongoing studies of various political status options and public education campaigns.
These efforts enabled the CSD, barely two years after its creation, to organize astatus referendum on January 12, 1982. 49% of voters chose a closer relationship with the United States viaCommonwealth.
Twenty-six percent voted for Statehood, while ten percent voted for the Status Quo (as an Unincorporated territory). Asubsequent run-off referendum held between Commonwealth and Statehood saw 73% of Guam voters choosing Commonwealth over Statehood (27%). Today, Guam remains an unincorporated territory despite referendums and a United Nations mandate to establish a permanent status for the island.[citation needed]
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Guam'sU.S. military installations remain among the most strategically vital in thePacific Ocean. When the United States closedU.S. Naval Base Subic Bay andClark Air Base bases in thePhilippines after the expiration of their leases in the early 1990s, many of the forces stationed there were relocated to Guam.
The removal of Guam's security clearance by President John F. Kennedy in 1963 allowed for the development of atourism industry. The island's rapid economic development was fueled both by rapid growth in this industry as well as increased U.S. Federal Government spending during the 1980s and 1990s.[citation needed]
Since 1974, about124 historic sites in Guam have been recognized under the U.S.National Register of Historic Places. Guam temporarily hosted 100,000 Vietnamese refugees in 1975'sOperation New Life, and 6,600Kurdish refugees in 1996.[22]: 17
On August 6, 1997, Guam was the site of theKorean Air Flight 801 aircraft accident. TheBoeing 747–300 jetliner was preparing to land when it crashed into a hill, killing 228 of the 254 people on board.[36]
The1997 Asian financial crisis, which hit Japan particularly hard, severely affected Guam's tourism industry. Military cutbacks in the 1990s also disrupted the island's economy. Economic recovery was further hampered by devastation from SupertyphoonsPaka in 1997 andPongsona in 2002, as well as the effects of theSeptember 11 terrorist attacks on tourism.
The recovery of the Japanese and Korean tourist markets reflected those countries' economic recoveries, as well as Guam's continued appeal as a weekend tropical retreat. U.S. military spending also dramatically increased as part of thewar on terrorism.
The late 2000s saw proposals to strengthen U.S. military facilities, including negotiations to transfer 8,000U.S. Marines fromOkinawa. American forces were originally scheduled to relocate from Okinawa to Guam beginning in 2012 or 2013. However, that was set back due to budget constrains and local resistance to the additional military presence;Marine Corps Base Camp Blaz was activated in 2020 but the relocation is scheduled to start no later than by the first half of the 2020s.
In August 2017,North Korea warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within 18 to 24 miles (29 to 39 km) of Guam, following anexchange of threats between the governments of North Korea and theUnited States.[37][38]
In 2018, aGovernment Accountability Office report stated thatAgent Orange was used as a commercial herbicide in Guam during the Vietnam and Korean Wars.[39][40] An analysis of chemicals present in the island's soil, together with resolutions passed byGuam's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around military basesAnderson Air Force Base,Naval Air Station Agana, Guam. Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was ever stored or used on Guam. Several Guam veterans have collected an enormous amount of evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2,4,5-T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.[41][42]
"Cosmopolitan" Guam poses particular challenges for Chamorus struggling to preserve their culture and identity in the face ofacculturation. The increasing numbers of Chamorus, especially Chamoru youth, relocating to the U.S. Mainland has further complicated both the definition and preservation of Chamoru identity.[43]
