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The known history ofGaza City spans 4,000 years. Gaza was ruled, destroyed and repopulated by various dynasties, empires, and peoples.[1]
Originally aCanaanite settlement, it came under the control of theancient Egyptians for roughly 350 years before being conquered and becoming one of thePhilistines' principal cities. Gaza became part of theAssyrian Empire around 730 BC.Alexander the Great besieged and captured the city in 332 BC. Most of the inhabitants were killed during the assault, and the city, which became a center forHellenistic learning and philosophy, was resettled by nearbyBedouins. The area changed hands regularly between two Greek successor-kingdoms, theSeleucids of Syria and thePtolemies of Egypt, until it was besieged and taken by theHasmoneans in 96 BC.
Gaza was rebuilt byRoman GeneralPompey Magnus, and granted toHerod the Great thirty years later. Throughout the Roman period, Gaza maintained its prosperity, receiving grants from several different emperors. A diverse, 500-member senate governed the city during this time. Conversion toChristianity in the city was spearheaded and completed underSaint Porphyrius, who destroyed its eightpagan temples between 396 and 420 AD. Gaza was conquered by the Muslim generalAmr ibn al-'As in 637 AD and most Gazans adopted Islam during early Muslim rule. Thereafter, the city went through periods of prosperity and decline. TheCrusaders wrested control of Gaza from theFatimids in 1100, but were driven out bySaladin. Gaza was inMamluk hands by the late 13th century, and became a regional capitol. It witnessed a golden age under theOttoman-appointedRidwan dynasty in the 16th century.
Gaza experienced destructive earthquakes in 1903 and 1914. In 1917, during World War I,British forcescaptured the city. Gaza grew significantly in the first half of the 20th century underMandatory rule. The population of the city swelled as a result of thePalestinian exodus during the1948 Arab–Israeli War. Gaza became a center of confrontation during theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, being occupied by Israel for decades. The city was largely destroyed and depopulated following theGaza war.
Settlement in the region of Gaza dates back to 3300–3000 BCE atTell es-Sakan – a site located south of the present-day Gaza City – which began as anAncient Egyptian fortress. The archaeologists who excavated Tell es-Sakan,Pierre de Miroschedji andMoain Sadeq, suggest that there were three areas of Egyptian settlement in the region: an area of permanent settlement with Tell es-Sakan as the administrative centre; areas of seasonal occupation extending north up the coast; and the rest of Palestine where Egyptians had trading contact with Canaanites.[3] Tell es-Sakan prospered as Canaanite cities began to trade agricultural goods with the Egyptians. However, when Egypt's economic interests shifted to thecedar trade withLebanon, Gaza's role was reduced to that of a port for ships carrying goods and it declined economically. The site was virtually abandoned and remained so throughout theEarly Bronze Age II.[1]
Gaza enjoyed demographic and economic growth again when the local Canaanite population began to resettle Tell es-Sakan around 2500, but in 2250, the area experienced a total collapse of civilization and all of the cities in the Gaza region were abandoned by the 23rd century BCE. In its place emerged semi-nomadic cultures with pastoral camps made up of rustic family dwellings which continued to exist throughout theEarly Bronze Age IV. An urban center known asTell el-Ajjul began to arise inland along the Wadi Ghazza riverbed,[1] along withal-Moghraqa which was likely a satellite settlement less than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from Tell el-Ajjul.[4]
During theMiddle Bronze Age, Tell es-Sakan was the southernmost locality inCanaanite territory, serving as a fort, and by 1650 BCE, while Egypt was occupied by the CanaaniteHyksos, a second city developed on the ruins of the first Tell es-Sakan. This city was destroyed about a century later, when the Hyksos were routed from Egypt. Egypt settled Gaza once again and Tell el-Ajjul rose for the third time in the 15th century BCE. The city finally ceased to exist in the 14th century, at the end of the Bronze Age.[1]
A city which would develop into Gaza began to emerge on the site of Tell el-Ajjul around the 16th-17th century BCE.[5] This city served as Egypt's administrative capital inCanaan, and was the residence of the Egyptian governor of the region. A caravan point of strategic importance from the earliest times, it was constantly involved in the wars between Egypt andSyria and theMesopotamian powers. For instance, Egyptian pharaohAhmose I completed his victory over the Hyksos by conquering their strongholdSharuhen near Gaza after a three-year siege.[6] In addition, Gaza appeared frequently in Egyptian and Assyrian records. UnderTuthmosis III, it is mentioned on the Syrian-Egyptian caravan route and in theAmarna letters as "ḫazzatu".[7] Gaza was in Egyptian hands for 350 years.[7]
Several Iron Age sites near Gaza have been investigated by archaeologists. Investigation of the Iron Age activity at Gaza itself has been hindered by later activity.[8]
Egyptian direct rule ended in the 12th century BCE, when Gaza was settled by thePhilistines, a seafaring people with cultural links to theAegean, following their defeat againstRamesses III. It then became a part of thepentapolis, a league of the Philistines' five most important city-states.[7]
TheHebrew Bible mentions theAvvites occupying an area that extended as far as Gaza, and that these people were dispossessed by theCaphtorites from the island ofCaphtor (modernCrete).[9] Some scholars speculate that the Philistines were descendants of the Caphtorites.
Gaza is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the place whereSamson was imprisoned and met his death.[10]
According to biblical accounts, Gaza fell toIsraelite rule during the reign ofKing David in the early 11th century BCE.[11][12][7] When the biblically postulatedUnited Monarchy split around 930 BCE, the territory of the Philistines, including Gaza, became part of theKingdom of Judah.[13][14] Some historians today believe that these stories about Israelite/Judean rule over Philistia are not historical, but rather mythical.[15][16][17]
The prophetsAmos andZephaniah are believed to have prophesied that Gaza would be deserted.[18][19][20]
When Canaan fell to theAssyrians underTiglath-Pileser III andSargon II around 730 BCE, Gaza came under Assyrian rule.[7] In the 7th century, it again came under Egyptian control, but during thePersian period (6th–4th centuries BCE) it enjoyed a certain independence and flourished.[7] In 601/600 BCE, Babylonian kingNebuchadnezzar II was defeated by the Egyptian army under pharaohNecho II atMigdol near Gaza;[21] however, it was captured by Nebuchadnezzar during his second unsuccessful campaign to invade Egypt in 568 BCE.[22] In 529 BCE,Cambyses I unsuccessfully attacked Gaza. The first coins were minted on theAthens model around 420–410 BCE.[23]
Alexander the Greatbesieged Gaza—the last city to resist his conquest on his path to Egypt—for five months, finally capturing it in 332 BCE.[7] Led by a eunuch named Batis and defended byArab mercenaries, Gaza withstood the siege for two months, until it was overcome by storm. The defenders, mostly local elements, fought to the death and the women and children were taken as captives. The city was resettled by neighboringBedouins,[24] who were sympathetic to Alexander's rule. He then organized the city into apolis or "city-state" andGreek culture took root in Gaza which gained a reputation as a flourishing center ofHellenic learning and philosophy.[25][26] Belonging at first to thePtolemaic kingdom, it passed after 200 BCE to theSeleucids.[7]
In the 1st century BCE and the first half of that century, it was theMediterranean port of theNabateans, whose caravans arrived there fromPetra or fromElath on theRed Sea. In 96 BCE, theHasmonean kingAlexander Jannaeus besieged the city for a year, which had sided withPtolemy IX Soter against him.[27] The inhabitants, who had hoped for help from the Nabataean kingAretas II, were killed and their city destroyed by Jannaeus when Aretas did not come to their aid.[7][28]
Gaza was rebuilt by consulAulus Gabinius after it was incorporated into theRoman Empire in 63 BCE, under the command ofPompey Magnus.[7] Roman rule brought six centuries of relative peace and prosperity to the city—which became a busy port and locus of trade between the Middle East and Africa.[25]
Gaza was granted toHerod the Great byRoman emperorAugustus in 30 BCE, where it formed a separate unit within his kingdom; and Cosgabar, the governor ofIdumea, was in charge of the city's affairs. On the division of Herod's kingdom, it was placed under the proconsul of Syria.[7] After Herod's death in 4 BCE, Augustus annexed it to the Province of Syria. In 66 CE, Gaza was burned down by Jews during their rebellion against the Romans. However, it remained an important city; even more so after the destruction ofJerusalem byTitus the following year.[29] Titus passed through Gaza on his march toward to Jerusalem, and again in his return.[30] Following Jerusalem's fall, captives were sold into slavery in Gaza.[31] The establishment of the Roman province ofArabia Petraea in 106 CE restored trade links withPetra andAila.[30]
In theActs of the Apostles, Gaza is mentioned as being on the desert route fromJerusalem toEthiopia. TheChristian gospel was explained to anEthiopian eunuch along this road byPhilip the Evangelist, and he wasbaptised in some nearby water.[32]
Throughout the Roman period, Gaza was a prosperous city and received grants and attention from several emperors.[7] It was governed by a diverse 500-member senate. Gaza's mint stamped out coins adorned with the busts of gods and emperors,[26] includingGordian III.[27] During his visit in 130 CE,[33] EmperorHadrian, who favored Gaza,[30] personally inaugurated wrestling, boxing and oratorical competitions in Gaza's new stadium.[34] The city was adorned with many pagan temples, the main cult being that ofMarnas. Other temples were dedicated toZeus,Helios,Aphrodite,Apollo,Athena, andTyche.[7] With the suppression of theBar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), Jewish captives were sold as slaves in Gaza.[31][35]
Gaza was awarded the status of aRoman colony at some point after the reign of Gordian III, possibly underValerian orGallienus.[36]
The spread ofChristianity in Gaza was initiated byPhilip the Arab around 250 CE; first in the port ofMaiuma, but later into the city. The religion faced obstacles as it spread through the inland population because pagan worship was strong.[37] In 299, an unverified number of local Christians who assembled in Gaza to hear the Christian scriptures read were seized and mutilated by the Romans.[38] Also, its Christians were harshly repressed during theDiocletianic Persecution in 303. The first bishop of Gaza wasPhilemon, believed to have been one of the 72 disciples, but the first cleric was Saint Silvanus who, during the persecution byMaximinus Daia in 310, was arrested along with about 30 other Christians, and condemned to death.[7]
With reorganization of theRoman provinces underDiocletian, Gaza became part ofPalaestina Prima, one of theLate Roman provinces. The official recognition of Christianity byConstantine I did not increase sympathy of the religion in Gaza. Although Gaza was represented by Bishop Asclepas in theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325, the vast majority of its inhabitants continued to worship the native gods.[38] As the Roman Empire was crumbling at this time, Gaza remained unaffected.[25] At this time, the inhabitants of Maiuma reportedly converted to Christianityen masse.Constantine II decided to separate it from pagan Gaza in 331, giving Maiuma city rights and its ownepiscopal see independent of thediocese of Gaza.[38]Julian reversed the process during his reign in the latter half of the 4th century. Although Maiuma had its own bishop, clergy, and diocesan territory, it shared its magistrates and administration with Gaza.[39] Upon Julian's death, Maiuma's independence was restored and the rivalry between it and Gaza intensified.[38]
During most of the 4th century, the Christian community was small, poor, and carried no influence in the city. The church was insignificant and its members were not allowed to hold political office.[40] However, conversion to Christianity in Gaza was spearheaded underSaint Porphyrius between 396 and 420.[7] The main source for pagan–Christian tensions in Gaza at this time is Porphyrius' biographer,Mark the Deacon.[41] In 402, after obtaining a decree from the emperorArcadius, all eight of the city's pagan temples were destroyed and non-Christian worship was forbidden by the envoyCynegius, replacing persecution of the Christians withpersecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. Paganism continued despite persecution, and according to the traditional Christian history, Christians were still persecuted in the city, resulting in Porphyrius undertaking more measures.[42] As a result of his persuasion, EmpressAelia Eudocia commissioned the construction of a church atop the ruins of the temple ofMarnas in 406.[43] Note that according toMacMullen, it is likely that Porphyrius did not even exist.[44] According to traditional Christian history, persecution against Christians did not cease, but it was less harsh and frequent than previously.[42]
A large6th-century synagogue with a mosaic tile floor depictingKing David was discovered in Gaza. An inscription states that the floor was donated in 508–509 CE by two merchant brothers.[45]
Gaza is depicted on the 6th-century mosaic map known as theMadaba Map.[46] Its northern municipal border was marked by Wadi al-Hesi, just beforeAscalon, and its southern boundary is unknown, but Gaza's jurisdiction did not reachRaphia. The towns ofBethelea,Asalea,Gerarit andKissufim were included in Gaza's territories.[47] Its large representation, approximately half of which is preserved, cannot be easily explained, mainly because only small tentative excavations have been made there and because ancient Gaza is covered by the still-inhabited Old City.[46]
Around 540, Gaza became the starting point for pilgrimages to theSinai Peninsula. It was an important city in the early Christian world and many scholars taught at its famousrhetorical school, including 6th-century scholarProcopius of Gaza or the ecclesiastic historianZacharias Rhetor.[7][48] The celebrated Church of Saint Sergius was built in this century among other building projects such as a bath house,stoas and the city wall, that were undertaken by the bishop Marcianus and the provincial governor Stephanus.[43][49]
At the same time, the region around Gaza became an important monastic center, including figures such asHilarion of Gaza,Barsanuphius andDorotheus of Gaza, who greatly influenced Byzantine and Slavicmonasticism.[50]
The depiction on the 6th-century Madaba Map supports the notion that Gaza was the most important political and commercial centre on the southern coast ofPalestine.[46] One of the goods the city exported between the fourth and seventh century waswine, which was grown around the city, often also cultivated by the various monasteries surrounding the city, exported around all the Mediterranean and mentioned by writers such asJerome,Sidonius Apollinaris from Gaul andIsidore of Seville.[51]
There were already converts to Islam among the city'sGreek-speaking Christian population before Gaza's capitulation to the Muslims. Near the end of the Byzantine era, Gaza had become the home of an increasingly influential group of Arab traders fromMecca, includingUmar ibn al-Khattab, who later became the secondruler of theIslamic Caliphate.Muhammad visited the city more than once before being a prophet ofIslam.[26]
In 634, Gaza was besieged by theRashidun army under general'Amr ibn al-'As, with assistance fromKhalid ibn al-Walid, following theBattle of Ajnadayn between theByzantine Empire and theRashidun Caliphate in central Palestine.[25][52] The Muslims' victory at Ajnadayn gave them control over much of Palestine's countryside, but not the major cities with garrisons such as Gaza. WithUmar succeedingAbu Bakr ascaliph (head of theCaliphate), the Rashidun forces began to make stronger efforts at conquering Byzantine territory.[53] During the three-year siege of Gaza, the city's Jewish community fought alongside the Byzantine garrison.[54] In the summer of 637, Amr's forces broke the siege and captured Gaza, killing its Byzantine garrison, but not attacking its inhabitants.[55] Amr's victory is attributed to a combination of Arab strategy, Byzantine weakness, and the influence of Gaza's Arab residents.[26] Believed to be the site where Muhammad's great-grandfatherHashim ibn Abd Manaf—who also lived as a merchant in Gaza—was buried, the city was not destroyed by the victorious Arab army.[56]
The arrival of the Muslim Arabs brought drastic changes to Gaza; its churches were transformed into mosques, including the Cathedral of John the Baptist (previously the Temple of Marnas), which became theGreat Mosque of Gaza.[56] Gaza's population adopted Islam as their religion relatively quickly in contrast with the city's countryside.[55] Eventually,[56][57]Arabic became the official language.[56] The Christian population was reduced to an insignificant minority and theSamaritan residents deposited their property with their high priest and fled the city east upon the Muslim conquest.[58]
Gaza was placed under the administration ofJund Filastin ("District of Palestine") ofBilad al-Sham province during Rashidun rule, and continued to be part of the district under the successive caliphates of theUmayyads andAbbasids.[59]
Under the Umayyads Gaza served as a minor administrative center.[57] In 672 an earthquake struck the city but there are few details of its effects. Under the caliph-appointed governors, Christians and Jews weretaxed, though their worship and trade continued, as noted in the writings of bishopWillibald, who visited the city in 723.[60] Nevertheless, exports of wine and olives declined and the overall prosperity of Palestine and Gaza went down.[61]
The year 750 saw the end of Umayyad rule in Palestine and the arrival of the Abbasids, with Gaza becoming a center for the writing of Islamic law.[33] In 767,Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i was born in Gaza and lived his early childhood there; al-Shafi'i founded one of the prominentfiqhs (schools of law) ofSunni Islam, namedShafi'i after him.[62]
In 796 the city was laid waste during acivil war by the Arab tribes of the area.[63] Gaza apparently recovered by the 9th century according toPersian geographerIstakhri who wrote that merchants grew rich there "for this place was a great market for the people of theHejaz."[64] A Christian writer, writing in 867, described it as "rich in all things".[30] Gaza's port, however, occasionally succumbed to neglect under Arab rule and an overall decline in commerce followed because of infighting among Palestine's rulers and Bedouin bandits who disrupted overland trade routes towards the city.[56]
From 868 to 905 theTulunids ruled Gaza,[1] and around 909, the influence of theFatimids from Egypt started to grow, leading to a slow decline of the city. Theorange was introduced to the area, arriving from India in 943.[33] In 977, the Fatimids established an agreement with theSeljuk Turks, whereby the Fatimids would control Gaza and the land south of it, includingEgypt.[65] By the 985 CE, while under Fatimid rule, the Arab geographeral-Muqaddasi described Gaza as "a large town lying on the highroad to Egypt on the border of the desert. There is here abeautiful mosque, also to be seen is the monument for the Khalif Umar."[64] The Arabic-language poetSulayman al-Ghazzi, who later also became bishop of the city, wrote many poems that thematise the hardships Palestinian Christians suffered during the reign of caliphal-Hakim.[66] Another poet, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Ghazzi, was born in the city in 1049.[67]
The Crusaders wrested control of Gaza from the Fatimids in 1100. According to the chroniclerWilliam of Tyre, the Crusaders found it uninhabited and in ruins. Unable to totally refortify the hilltop on which Gaza was built, due to a lack of resources, KingBaldwin III built a small castle there in 1149. The possession of Gaza completed the military encirclement of the Fatimid-held city ofAscalon to the north. After the castle's construction, Baldwin granted it and the surrounding region to theKnights Templar.[43] He also had the Great Mosque converted into the Cathedral of Saint John.[33][43]
In 1154, the Arab traveleral-Idrisi wrote Gaza "is today very populous and in the hands of the Crusaders."[64] William of Tyre confirms that in 1170, a civilian population was persuaded to occupy the area outside the castle and establish feeble fortifications and gates surrounding the community.[43] That same year, KingAmalric I of Jerusalem withdrew Gaza's Templars to assist him against an Egypt-basedAyyubid force led bySaladin at nearbyDarum. However, Saladin evaded the Crusader force and assaulted Gaza instead, destroying the town built outside the castle's walls and killing its inhabitants after they were refused refuge in the castle, managed byMiles of Plancy at the time. Seven years later, the Templars prepared for another defense of Gaza against Saladin, but this time his forces fell on Ascalon. In 1187, following Ascalon's capitulation, the Templars surrendered Gaza in return for the release of their masterGerard of Ridefort. Saladin then ordered the destruction of the city's fortifications in 1191. A year later, after recapturing it,Richard the Lionheart apparently refortified the city, but the walls were dismantled as a result of theTreaty of Ramla agreed upon months later in 1193.[43]
According to geographerAbu al-Fida, Gaza was a medium-sized city, possessing gardens and a seashore in the early 13th century.[64] The Ayyubids constructed theShuja'iyya neighborhood—the first extension of Gaza beyond the Old City.[68]
Ayyubid rule virtually ended in 1260, after theMongols underHulagu Khan completely destroyed Gaza—Hulagu's southernmost point of conquest. Hulagu left his army in Gaza after being recalled due to the death of the Mongol emperor, and Mamluk generalaz-Zahir Baybars subsequently drove the Mongols out of the city and againdefeated them atAin Jalut in theHarod Valley nearBaysan in 1260. He was proclaimed sultan of Egypt on his way back from the battlefield after the assassination of SultanQutuz. Baibars passed through Gaza six times during his expeditions against the remnants of the Crusader states and the Mongols between 1263 and 1269.[69]
Mamluk domination started in 1277,[56] with Gaza initially being a small village in the territory ofRamla. In 1279, Sultanal-Mansur Qalawun encamped in Gaza for fifty days while on a march against the Mongols.[69]
In 1293, Qalawun's sonan-Nasir Muhammad instituted Gaza as the capital of the province that bore its name,Mamlakat Ghazzah, lit. the Governorate of Gaza.[69] This province covered thecoastal plain fromRafah in the south, extending in the east to the western slopes ofSamaria and theHebron Hills; its major towns to the north wereQaqun,Ludd, and Ramla.[70]
In 1294, an earthquake devastated Gaza, and five years later the Mongols again destroyed all that was restored by the Mamluks.[56] That same year, Gaza was the center of a conspiracy against Sultanal-Adil Kitbugha, but the plot was detected and crushed before being carried out.[69]
TheSyrian geographeral-Dimashqi accounted to Gaza the cities and towns of Ascalon, Jaffa, Caesarea andArsuf to the north;Deir al-Balah andal-Arish (in north-central theSinai) to the south; Bayt Jibrin,Karatiyya, Hebron and Jerusalem to the east—all of which had their own sub-governors.[71] He further described Gaza in 1300 as "so rich in trees it looks like a cloth of brocade spread out upon the land".[26]
EmirBaibars al-Ala'i ruled Mamlakat Ghazzah between 1307 and 1310, during the second reign ofan-Nasir Muhammad until the latter was briefly overthrown byBaybars al-Jashnakir.[72] Gaza was one of the places that returned to the allegiance of the exiled sultan; in 1310, an-Nasir Muhammad defeated Sultan Baybars in Gaza, forcing the latter to surrender his throne to him. Baybars was imprisoned in the city.[71]
EmirSanjar al-Jawli acquired the governorship of Gaza and central Palestine in 1311. He highly favored Gaza and transformed it into a flourishing city, having built in it a horse-race course, amadrasa (college), amosque, akhan (caravansary), amaristan (hospital), and a castle.[73] In late 1332, coinciding with the appointment of EmirTaynal al-Ashrafi as governor, some of the provincial privileges of Gaza, such as the governor's direct subordination to the sultan in Cairo, were removed by an-Nasir Muhammad's decree. From then, and until 1341, when Sanjar al-Jawli served a second term as governor, Gaza became subordinate to thena'ib as-saltana (viceroy) of Syria, EmirTankiz al-Husami.[74]
In 1348, thebubonic plague spread to the city, killing the majority of its inhabitants, and in 1352, Gaza suffered a destructive flood—which was rare in that arid part of Palestine.[75] However, by 1355, theBerber travellerIbn Battuta visited the city and noted that it was "large and populous, and has many mosques. But there were no walls round it. There was here of old a fine Jami' Mosque (the Great Mosque), but the one present[ly] used was built by Amir Jawli [Sanjar al-Jawli]."[64]
In the early 1380s, the governor of Gaza, Akbugha as-Safawi, plotted to commit treason against Sultanaz-Zahir Barquq. The plot was detected, Safawi was exiled toal-Karak, and replaced by Husam al-Din ibn Bakish. Soon after, the city fell into the hands of Emir Yalbugha an-Nasiri who revolted against Barquq. Gaza was retaken without violence, and Ibn Bakish met Yalbugha at its gates with gifts and proposals of peace. The unseated Barquq regained his throne in 1389, and retook Gaza the next year.[76] In 1401 a swarm of locusts destroyed Gaza's crops.[75] A battle between the rival Mamluk emirs Akbirdi and Qansuwa Khamsiyah occurred in Gaza; Khamsiyah had failed in usurping the Mamluk throne and fled to Gaza where he made his unsuccessful last stand.[77] Between 1428 and 1433, Gaza was governed by EmirSayf ad-Din Inal, who would later become sultan in 1453.[78] During his sultanate, in 1455, Inal'sdawadar (executive secretary) had theMadrasa of Birdibak built in theShuja'iyya neighborhood.[79]
In 1516, Gaza—by now a small town with an inactive port, ruined buildings and reduced trade—was incorporated into theOttoman Empire.[75] The Ottoman army quickly and efficiently crushed a small-scale uprising,[80] and the local population generally welcomed them as fellowSunni Muslims.[75]
Shortly after Palestine's quick submission to the Ottomans, it was divided into six districts, including theGaza Sanjak (District of Gaza), which stretched fromJaffa in the north toBayt Jibrin in the east and Rafah in the south. Thesanjak was a part of the largerDamascus Eyalet or the "Province of Damascus".[81] In that time, the majority of the Christian population ofShoubak migrated to Gaza, making it the largest Christian center of Palestine and an important source of support for themonastery of St. Catherine on the Sinai.[82]
An early governor of Gaza Sanjak was Kara Shahin Mustafa, a formerjannissary (member of a military corps) who rose to become an elite military officer and state minister and eventually avizier and trusted aide of SultanSuleiman the Magnificent.[83] He received the governorship of Gaza apparently as an interim appointment before he was appointedGovernor of Egypt, although he was deposed three years later by SultanSelim II. Mustafa died a short while later and his son Ridwan Pasha, who was the treasurer ofYemen, became governor shortly before Mustafa's death. The Ridwan dynasty, which would rule Gaza for over a century, derives its name from Ridwan Pasha. He was later appointed Governor of Yemen, but was deposed two years later and returned to the governorship of Gaza. After becoming governor ofEthiopia,Basra, andDiyarbakır in that order, he successfully led an Ottoman contingent againstSafavid Persia in 1579. The sultan then awarded him the province ofAnatolia, where he died in 1585.[84]
Although no explanation is provided in the biographies of the Ridwan family, it is evident they chose Gaza as their home and built there their residence, known asQasr al-Basha, 'the Pasha's castle'. Ridwan Pasha's sonAhmad Pasha succeeded him and governed Gaza for thirty years, sometimes incorporating thesanjaks ofNablus andJerusalem. He became Governor of Damascus Eyalet in 1601 after bribing several viziers and bureaucrats inIstanbul. He died in 1607. Next in line was Hasan Pasha ibn Ahmad who became known 'Arab Hasan ("Hasan the Bedouin") because by then, the Ridwans were identified with being well-versed with the Bedouin and controlling them.[84] He successfully led his pro-Ottoman Bedouin troops against the army of the rebelDruzeemir,Fakhr ad-Din, in a series of battles. He was later appointed Governor ofTripoli in today'sLebanon, but he was deposed in 1644. 'Arab Hasan had many wives and concubines, who bore him 85 children. He led the Ridwans successfully militarily, however, he burdened the dynasty with heavy debt.[85]
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'Arab Hasan's sonHusayn Pasha was governor of Nablus and Jerusalem, and inherited the impoverished governorship of Gaza when his father died. He borrowed a large sum from the French in order to meet the heavy taxes imposed on the city by Hassan Aga, governorSidon Eyalet—the province that Gaza briefly belonged to.[86] Husayn's period in office was peaceful and prosperous for the city, and he gained a good reputation for considerably reducing the strife between the nearby Bedouin and the settled population. He appointed his son Ibrahim to be governor of the Gaza and Jerusalemsanjaks, but when Ibrahim was killed during an expedition against theDruze inMount Lebanon in 1660, Husayn resumed control of Gaza.[85] The city began to recover and thrive, being described as the "capitol of Palestine" due to its status.[87][86] The Great Mosque was restored, and six other mosques constructed, whileTurkish baths and market stalls proliferated.[75] Anonymous petitions from Damascus sent to Istanbul complaining about Husayn's failure to protect thehajj caravan and his alleged pro-Christian tendencies,[86] however, served as an excuse for the Ottoman government to depose him. He was soon imprisoned in Damascus and his assets confiscated by provincial authorities. He was later sent toIstanbul and died in prison there in 1663.[85]
Husayn's brotherMusa Pasha then governed Gaza into the early 1670s, implementing an anti-French and anti-Christian regime to appease the Ottoman government.[86] Soon after his reign ended, Ottomans officials were appointed to govern. The Ridwan period is considered Gaza's last golden age during Ottoman rule and the city gradually dwindled after they were removed from office.[85]
In 1723, the Ottomans appointed Salih Pasha Tuqan of theNablus-basedTuqan family to govern Gaza and two othersanjaks until his death in 1742.[88] In the 1750s, local Bedouin tribes disposed of the plunder from aMeccan caravan, consisting of 13,000 camel-loads of goods, into Gaza's markets, boosting the city's wealth. The attack on the caravan was a reprisal to the Ottomans who had recently replaced the governor of Damascus. In 1763, there was a revolt in Gaza against the Ottomans.[89] Then, in November 1770,Ali Bey al-Kabir, the rebellious Mamluk sultan of Egypt, sent troops to Gaza to aidZahir al-Umar in theGalilee, helping him check the power of the Ottomans in theLevant.[90] Gaza was briefly occupied by theFrench Army underNapoleon Bonaparte, who referred to it as "the outpost of Africa, the door to Asia", in 1799.[91] Most of its inhabitants fled as a result. His forces easily razed the remains of the city walls (which had not been rebuilt since their destruction by Saladin), but abandoned the city after their failedsiege of Acre that same year. The duration of French influence in Gaza was too short to have a palpable effect.[75]
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Gaza was culturally dominated by neighboring Egypt from the early 19th century;Muhammad Ali of Egypt conquered it and most of Palestine in 1832.[33] Strangely, in 1833, Muhammad Ali instructed his sonIbrahim Pasha not to purchase Gaza's cotton harvest (cotton production was Ali's main source of wealth and Egypt's production was low that year), instead allowing its residents to dispose of it how they wished.[92]
American scholarEdward Robinson visited Gaza in 1838, describing it as a "thickly populated" town larger than Jerusalem, with its Old City lying upon a hilltop, while its suburbs laid on the nearby plain.[93] He further stated that its soil was rich and supported groves of "delicious and abundant" apricots and mulberries. Although Gaza's port was by then inactive, it benefited from trade and commerce because of its position on the caravan route between Egypt and Syria, as well as from the production of soap and cotton for trade with the Bedouin.[94] The governor of Gaza at the time was Sheikh Sa'id.[93] Robinson noted that virtually all of Gaza's vestiges of ancient history and antiquity had disappeared due to constant conflict and occupation.[95]
The bubonic plague struck again in 1839 and the city stagnated, as it lacked political and economic stability. In 1840, Egyptian and Ottoman troops battled outside of Gaza, with the Ottomans emerging victorious, effectively ending Egyptian rule over Palestine. The battles brought about more death and destruction, just barely after the city began to recover from the plague.[75] TheChurch of Saint Porphyrius was renovated in 1856,[96] and in 1874,French orientalistCharles Clermont-Ganneau visited Gaza, gathering and cataloging a sizable collection of Byzantine inscriptions and describing the city's Great Mosque in detail.[75] SultanAbdul Hamid II had the wells of Gaza restored in 1893.[96]
Although the first municipal council of Gaza was formed in 1893 under the chairmanship of Ali Khalil Shawa, modern mayorship began in 1906 with his sonSaid al-Shawa, who was appointed mayor by Ottoman authorities.[97] Like other regions and cities in Palestine at the time, Gaza was economically and politically dominated by a number of powerful clans, particularly the Shawa, Husseini, and Sourani families.[98] Two destructive earthquakes occurred in 1903 and 1914.[75][99]
When World War I erupted in 1917, British forces were defeated by the Ottomans in thefirst andsecond Battle of Gaza. GeneralEdmund Allenby, leading theAllied Forces, finally conquered Gaza in athird battle.[75]
After the First World War, theLeague of Nations granted quasi-colonial authority over former Ottoman territories to Great Britain and France, with Gaza becoming part of theBritish Mandate of Palestine.[100]
During the1929 Palestine riots, the Jewish Quarter of Gaza was destroyed and most of Gaza's fifty Jewish families fled the city. In the 1930s and 1940s, Gaza underwent major expansion, with new neighborhoods, such asRimal andZeitoun being built along the coast, and the southern and eastern plains. Areas damaged in the riots underwent reconstruction. Most of the funding for these developments came from international organizations and missionary groups.[96]
Gaza War Cemetery, one of the world’s many Commonwealth war cemeteries, contains the graves of soldiers from the British Empire and Commonwealth dating back as far asWorld War One.[101] The majority of the graves (3082 of 3691) are British, but there are also the graves of 263Australians, 50 Indians, 23 New Zealanders, 23 Canadians, 36 Poles, and 184 Ottoman-era Turkish graves, plus small numbers of South African, Greek, Egyptian, German, French and Yugoslav soldiers.[101]
At the conclusion of the1948 Arab–Israeli War,Egypt was in control of Gaza and the surrounding area, that came to be called theGaza Strip. Gaza's growing population was augmented by an influx ofrefugees fleeing nearby cities, towns and villages that were captured by Israel. From 1948 until 1959, Gaza was nominally under the jurisdiction of theAll-Palestine Government, an entity established by theArab League during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, purportedly as the government for a liberated Palestine.[102] However, the government was ineffective with little or no influence over events in Gaza and was dissolved by Cairo in 1959.[102] Egyptian occupation of the Gaza Strip was broken for four months during the 1956Suez Crisis.[103]
Upon the withdrawal of Israeli forces, Egyptian presidentGamal Abdel Nasser issued several reforms in Gaza, including the expansion of educational opportunities and civil services, provision of housing and the establishment of local security forces. As in Egypt, political activity in Gaza was severely curtailed, but the government-sponsored Arab National Union was established in place of the All-Palestine Government that Nasser abolished in 1959, which gave the city's citizens a greater voice in national politics. In 1959, with the abolishment of the All-Palestine Government, Gaza officially became a part of theUnited Arab Republic, a union of Syria and Egypt, under the pan-Arab policy of Nasser. In reality, however, Gaza was under direct Egyptian military governorship, which also continued upon the withdrawal of Syria from the UAR shortly afterwards. When thePalestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was founded in 1964, Nasser formally, but not practically, proclaimed that it would hold authority over Gaza, and a year later, conscription was instituted for thePalestinian Liberation Army.[103]
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Gaza was invaded and occupied by Israel in 1967 following theSix-Day War.[104] Israel created theIsraeli Military Governorate to administrate territories it captured, including Gaza.[105] Israeli settlements began to be established in the Gaza Strip.[106]
Organized armed struggle against Israel in Gaza peaked between 1969 and 1971, but was largely crushed by theIsrael Defense Forces (IDF) under the command ofAriel Sharon.[107] Militants targeted Arabs working at Israeli companies,[108] and in one instance, killed a Jewish family. In response, Sharon conducted a year long operation, authorized byShlomo Gazit, involving the demolition of homes and the employment of special assassination teams that killed suspects. Israel also began to set up detainment camps, arresting families of suspected suspects, and some Gazan youths who weren't accused of anything. The purpose was to dissuade other families from allowing their sons to joinFatah. The camps were located in remote desert areas, holding as many as 50 people. The Red Cross described detainees' treatment there as 'merciless'.[109]
In 1971, the IDF destroyed parts of theAl-Shati refugee camp to widen roads for security reasons.[110] Israel developed new housing schemes nearby that resulted in the establishment of the northernSheikh Radwan district. TheUnited Nations Relief and Works Agency and thePalestine Liberation Organization were vociferous in their opposition to the move, claiming it was forced resettlement.[111] In 1972, Gaza's military governor dismissed the city's mayor,Rashad al-Shawwa, for refusing to annex al-Shati camp to the municipality of Gaza.[112] Frequent conflicts erupted between Palestinians and the Israeli authorities in the city after the 1970s.[75]
In December 1987, an uprising began in the occupied territories, called theFirst Intifada. Gaza became a center of confrontation during this uprising,[75] resulting in a 142 deaths and a damaged economy.[113][114]
In September 1993, after the First Intifada, leaders of Israel and the PLO signed theOslo Accords, allowing Palestinian administration of the Gaza Strip and theWest Bank town ofJericho. This was implemented in 1994, and Israeli forces withdrew from Gaza, leaving the newPalestinian Authority (PA) to administer and police the city.[25] Led byYasser Arafat, the PA chose Gaza as its first provincial headquarters. The newly establishedPalestinian National Council held its inaugural session in Gaza in March 1996.[96]
In 2000, following the failure of the2000 Camp David Summit, another Palestinian uprising was launched, called theSecond Intifada.[115] Gaza again became an area of confrontation.[116]
In 2005, Israel implemented itsunilateral disengagement plan under which it completely withdrew Israeli armed forces and settlements from the Gaza Strip.[117] Violence during the Second Intifada contributed to the decision.[118]
In 2006,Sunni-Islamist groupHamas won thePalestinian legislative election against Fatah, resulting in a government led by the group. Tensions between the groups led to a power-sharing agreement signed inMecca.[119] However, these tensions continued, and culminated in abrief civil war which saw Hamas take control of the Gaza Strip.[120] Hamas was ousted from the PA, which retained control of the West Bank.[121]
After Hamas' takeover, Israelblockaded the Gaza Strip and implemented restrictions on movement.[122] These policies led to further poverty and lessened resources in the city.[123] Hamas conducted rocket attacks on Israel, as to pressure it to lift the blockade.[124]
In late 2008, Israel raided part of the Gaza Strip to destroy Hamas tunnels,[125] leading to clashes and a shortwar.[126] Israel surrounded and invaded Gaza,[127] heavily bombing the city.[128] Early in 2009, a ceasefire was reached and Israel withdrew from the Strip.[129][130] The war resulted in more than 1,000 Gazan deaths.[131]
In 2014, Israel initiateda war against Hamas, aiming to stop its rocket fire.[132] Israel bombed the Strip and city, and eventually invaded it. Israel entered the Shuja'iyya neighborhood, resulting ina battle with heavy civilian casualties. After Israel destroyed a large amount of Hamas tunnels, it withdrew from the Gaza Strip, and a ceasefire was implemented soon after.[133] 2,251 Gazans were killed in the war, 65 percent of which were civilians, according to the UN.[134]
On 7 October 2023, theAl-Qassam Brigades, Hamas' military wing,invaded southern Israel and killed about 1,200 people including more than 800 civilians, and took 251 hostages.[137] Israel retaliated heavily, imposing atotal blockade on the Gaza Strip andbombing it.[138] In preparation for a ground invasion, Israel ordered theevacuation of 1.1 million people in the northern Gaza Strip.[139] Soon after, Israelsurrounded and invaded the city, occupying it for eight months.[140][141]
Northern Gaza was left largely deserted, with about only 300,000 people remaining in the region.[142] The remaining population was subjected to ahumanitarian crisis andstarvation brought on by the war.[143] 70 percent of the city was destroyed by airstrikes,[144] and more than 40,000 people were killed in the Strip.[138] Israel was accused of committing agenocide of Palestinians in Gaza during the war, with South Africainitiating proceedings at theInternational Court of Justice against Israel.[145]
The red bars in the chronology below indicate periods during which the indicated group had limited self-rule, and not sovereignty.[146]
Slaves were sold at Gaza after the fall of Jerusalem and at the end of the Jewish rebellion in 135, and it may perhaps have been an important slaving center even in ordinary times.
In the late 130s the market at Mamre was flooded with Jews captured by the Romans in the course of the suppression of the revolt. The overflow of slaves was directed to the market of Gaza.
The prime minister is comfortable with limited economic growth in Gaza, particularly as a way to modify Hamas's urge to get into trouble. We still want there to be a discrepancy between economic life in Gaza and the West Bank, but we no longer feel it needs to be so large.
Hamas and other Palestinian armed groups have sought to justify the attacks as appropriate reprisals for Israeli military operations and the ongoing blockade against Gaza, and as a lawful response to the Israeli occupation of Gaza.
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Media related toHistory of Gaza City at Wikimedia Commons