Thehistory ofFrench wine, spans a period of at least 2600 years dating to the founding ofMassalia in the 6th century BC byPhocaeans with the possibility thatviticulture existed much earlier. TheRomans did much to spread viticulture across the land they knew asGaul, encouraging the planting of vines in areas that would become the well knownwine regions ofBordeaux,Burgundy,Alsace,Champagne,Languedoc,Loire Valley and theRhone.
Over the course of its history, the Frenchwine industry would be influenced and driven by the commercial interests of the lucrative English market and Dutch traders.Prior to theFrench Revolution, theCatholic Church was one of France's largest vineyard owners-wielding considerable influence in regions such as Champagne and Burgundy where the concept ofterroir first took root. Aided by these external and internal influences, the French wine industry has been the pole bearer for the world wine industry for most of its history with many of its wines considered the benchmark for their particular style. The late 20th and early 21st century brought considerable change—earmarked by a changingglobal market and competition from other European wine regions such asItaly andSpain as well as emergingNew World wine producers such asCalifornia,Australia and South America.[1]
There is archaeological evidence to suggest that theCelts first cultivated the grape vine,Vitis vinifera, in Gaul. Grapepips have been found throughout France, pre-dating Greek and Roman cultural influences, with some examples found nearLake Geneva being over 12,000 years old.[2] A major turning-point in the wine history of Gaul came with the founding of Massalia in the 6th century BC byGreek immigrants fromPhocaea inAsia Minor. By the 2nd century BC, Massalia (by then known as Massilia) came under Roman influence as a vital port on the trade route linking Rome to Roman settlements atSaguntum (near what is now modernValencia in Spain). Roman presence and influence in Massilia grew as the settlement came under attack from a succession of forces including theLigurians,Allobroges andArverni. Eventually the area became a Roman province first known asProvincia and laterGallia Narbonensis.[1]
The early Greek settlers brought a distinctly Mediterranean outlook to viticulture in Gaul. To their understanding, vines grew best in the same climate and area that would supportolive andfig trees, therefore most of the early vineyard planting was in the warm, Mediterranean coastal areas. In 7 BC, the Greek geographerStrabo noted that the areas around Massilia andNarbo could produce the same fruits as Italy but the rest of Gaul further north could not support the olive, fig or vine.[3] Under Roman rule, in the century and a half BC, the majority of the wine consumed in the area was required by law to be Italian in origin,[4] as the distribution of fragments of wineamphorae found throughout Gaul after about 100 BC, especially along the coasts and rivers, suggests: some of the earliest amphorae, from the 2nd century BC, bearIberian shipper's marks, indicating that distribution of wine predated conquest.[5] It wasn't till the first century AD that there was a record of Gaul's wine being of any note or renown. In hisNatural History (book xiv),Pliny the Elder noted that in the region near Vienna (modern dayVienne in the Rhone wine region), theAllobroges produced aresinated wine that was held in esteem and commanded a high market price.[1]
It was also during the late first century BC/early first century AD that viticulture started to spread to other areas of Gaul — beyond areas where the olive and fig would grow, where a suitable variety was found to be thebiturica, the ancestor ofcabernet varieties.[4] The high demand for wine and the cost of transport from Rome or Massilia were likely motivators for this spread. Archaeological evidence dating to the reign ofAugustus suggests that large numbers of amphorae were being produced nearBézier in the Narbonensis and in theGaillac region ofSouthwest France. In both these areas, the presence of the evergreen holm oak,Quercus ilex, which also grows in the familiarMediterranean climate served as a benchmark indicating an area where the climate was warm enough to ensure a reliableharvest each year.[1]
Expansion continued into the third century AD, pushing the borders of viticulture beyond the areas of the holm oak to places such as Bordeaux inAquitania and Burgundy, where the more marginal climate included wet, cold summers that might not produce a harvest each year. But even with the risk of an occasional lost harvest, the continuing demand for wine among the Roman and native inhabitants of Gaul made the proposition of viticulture a lucrative endeavor. By the 6th century AD, vines were planted throughout Gaul including theLoire Valley, theÎle-de-France (Paris Basin) which included the areas of modern-dayChampagne, as well asBrittany.[1]
Thedecline of the Roman Empire brought sweeping changes to Gaul, as the region was invaded byGermanic tribes from the north including theVisigoths,Burgundians and theFranks, none of whom were familiar with wine. The invaders set up kingdoms inAquitaine,Burgundy and Île-de-France. By the time thatCharlemagne established his kingdom in the late 8th century, power in France was polarised between south and north: unlike the Mediterranean south, where grapes were easy to cultivate and wine was plentiful, the more viticulturally challenged regions of the north saw wine as a luxury item and a symbol of status. The influence of the Christian Church (which had been largely permeated throughout the region since the 6th century) also enhanced the image of wine in France as it became an integral part of thesacrament of theEucharist.[1]
During theCarolingian era, a new system of land development emerged that was intimately tied with the spread of viticulture inMedieval France. Under this system ofcomplaint, a farmer could approach a land owner with uncultivated land with an offer to plant and tend to the area for a contracted amount of time. After the given length of time, half of the fully cultivated land would revert to full control of the original landowner while the remaining half would become the farmer's under the condition that a percentage or "tithing" of each year's crop would be paid to the original land owner. Under this system, many areas of France were enthusiastically and efficiently planted with little cost to the land owner; such as thePoitou region nearLa Rochelle. The modern day Loire Valley wine ofQuarts de Chaume derives its name from the use of this practice back in the 15th century when the Abbey ofRonceray d'Angers owned a large portion of uncultivated land (chaume) which it contracted out to growers in exchange for a fourth (quart) of the wine produced on the land.[1]
In theMiddle Ages, transportation of heavy wooden barrels of wine over land was a costly and risky proposition. Wine regions close to easily navigable rivers, such as theLoire andGaronne, found the possibility of trade to other regions and outside France more attainable and profitable while more isolated and landlocked regions likeBurgundy had a harder time developing much of a trade market outside their region. Port cities likeBordeaux, La Rochelle andRouen emerged as formidable centers of commerce with the wines ofGascony,Haut Pays, Poitou and the Île-de-France. During this period, political climates and alliances played a substantial role in the trade of French wines to other European countries.[1] The 1152 marriage ofEleanor of Aquitaine withHenry Plantagenet, the future Henry II of England, was the beginning of a long and fruitful relationship between Bordeaux and England.[6] The 1295Auld Alliance between France and Scotland against England gave the Scots ample access to French wines for themselves. At the height of its power, theDuchy of Burgundy included the southern parts of theNetherlands andFlanders—introducing the Dutch to the wines of Burgundy.[1]
The 1305 election ofPope Clement V was followed by the move of thepapacy from Rome toAvignon. During this time, the wines of the Rhone and Burgundy region received a higher profile due to their preference by theAvignonese popes. WhenPetrarch wrote toPope Urban V, pleading for his return to Rome, he noted that one obstacle to his request was that the best Burgundy wines could not be had south of theAlps. Following the prominence of Burgundy wine during the Avignonese papacy, theValoisDukes of Burgundy took a keen interest in leveraging the region's wines into power and status. The Duchy would become one of the most powerful in France and very nearly its own kingdom—fueled in part by the prestige of the region's wines.[7]
The 14th century was a period of peak prosperity for the Bordeaux-English wine trade that came to a close during theHundred Years' War when Gascony came back under French control in 1453. Following the expulsion of the English, Dutch wine traders took on a more prominent role in Bordeaux. The Dutch were avid traders, buying wine from across Europe (particularly the Mediterranean countries) for trade withHanseatic states, and were eager to capitalize on the potential of the French wine industry. For most of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Dutch traders would play an intimate role in the fortunes of the French wine industry.(See Influence section below).[8]
TheAge of Enlightenment saw an increase in the study and application of winemaking methods with University sponsored studies and treatises on wine related topics. In 1756 theAcademy of Bordeaux invited students to write papers on the topic ofclarifying wines and the advantages or disadvantages of using egg whites as afining agent. In Burgundy, theAcademy of Dijon sponsored a study on ways to improve the quality of Burgundy wine. In the vineyards, vignerons began focusing more on which grape varieties performed best in different areas and augmenting their plantings to capitalize on their findings.[9]
Following the French Revolution there was an increase in the amount of poor quality French wine being produced.Jean-Antoine Chaptal, the Minister of the Interior forNapoleon, felt that a contributing factor to this trend was the lack of knowledge among many French vignerons of the emerging technologies and winemaking practices that could improve the quality their wines. In 1801, Chaptal compiled this knowledge into a treatiseTraité théorique et pratique sur la culture de la vigne which included his advocacy of adding sugar to the wine to increase alcohol levels—a process now known aschaptalization. Chaptal's treatise was a turning point in the history of wine technology as it synthesized the knowledge current to the beginning of the 19th century.[10]
By the mid 19th century, the wine industry of France enjoyed a golden period of prosperity. A new class of consumers, thebourgeoisie, emerged as a strong market for wine and other culinary products. TheGironde region of Bordeaux, in particular, enjoyed a swell of interest from both the Parisian market as well as its steady trade with England. For the1855 Paris Exposition, EmperorNapoleon III commissioned the Bordeaux merchants to come out with a ranking of the region's wine estates. The1855 classification of Bordeaux would become one of the world's most famous rankings of wine estates. Wine was becoming a cornerstone of the French economy and a source of national pride as French wine enjoyed international recognition as the benchmark standards for the wine world.[1]
A series of events brought this golden age of prosperity to an end. In the 19th century, scientific interest in collectingbotanical species led to the exchange of many specimens from around the world—with the unintended consequence of introducing new diseases and allments to populations that had no natural resistances to these diseases. North America, in particular, was the source of severalgrape ailments that would devastate the French wine industry. It started in the 1850s with the introduction ofpowdery mildew, or oidium, which not only affected the skin color of the grapes but also reduced vineyields and the resulting quality of the wines. The 1854 vintage was particularly hard hit, producing the smallest yields seen in more than 60 years.[1] A solution to the problem was discovered in 1857 whenHenri Marès devised a technique ofsulfuring vines to combat oidium.[6]
.jpg)
But just as French vignerons were recovering from oidium came a new mysterious ailment that caused decay or death in the grapevines. The cause was a tiny louse, known asphylloxera, imported from North America. This louse targets therootstock of the vine. The solution to this epidemic also came from North America in the grafting of naturally resistant American rootstocks to the European vines. However, while the importing of this new North American plant material helped to stave off the phylloxera epidemic, it brought with it yet more problems-the fungal disease ofdowny mildew that first surfaced in 1878 andblack rot that followed in the 1880s.[1]
The devastation to French vineyards brought with it the opportunity to explore new plantings and many vignerons began to experiment withhybrid plantings—starting first with the American hybrids (such asDelaware andClinton) with genes from the more resistantAmerican vines species and then moving on to French hybrids (such asChambourcin andVidal blanc) that produces wines with flavors more similar to EuropeanVitis vinifera.[1]
In the late 19th century the French government commissionedLouis Pasteur to conduct a study on the problems plaguing the French wine industry. His findings had a lasting influence on the science of Frenchwinemaking. Pasteur was asked to help identify wine quality control issues that caused spoilage and otherfaults. During the 3 to 4 years that Pasteur spent studying wine he observed and explained the process offermentation—noted that it was living organisms (yeast) that convert sugar in the grape must into alcohol in some form ofchemical reaction. He also noted the presence ofglycerol andsuccinic acid in wine as well as the beneficial process of addingtartaric acid during winemaking. Another observation that Pasteur made was that oxygen played a significant role in the aging and improvement of wine.[11]
Pasteur identified several causes of wine spoilage including some that could be controlled during winemaking. He noted that "graisse" was due to the production ofpolysaccharide, degradation of sugars led tomannitic acid and that the degradation of glycerol led to bitterness in the wine. Pasteur found that the particular problem of Burgundy wine spoiling and turning into vinegar on long voyages to England was caused by the bacteriumacetobacter. The results of Pasteur's studies revolutionized the French understanding of winemaking and eventually spread to other wine regions across the globe.[11]
Thedevelopment of railway systems broadened the horizon for trade in French wines. Regions that were not historically dependent on river transportation suddenly found new opportunities and more commercial interest in their wines now that they could be transported more easily. TheLanguedoc region of southern France became a vastly planted expanse of land churning out great numbers of light, simple wines that were sent all over France. Many of these wines were "improved" in alcohol, color and weight with the addition ofAlgerian wine from theFrench colony in Africa—providing a sizable impact on theAlgerian economy until thatcountry's independence in the mid 20th century.[1]
The 20th century brought twoworld wars which had devastating effects on some French wine regions, but also brought a renewed focus on reorganization of the country's wine industry.[1] The development of theInstitut National des Appellations d'Origine (INAO) and theAppellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) systems, spearheaded byChâteauneuf-du-Pape producer and lawyerBaron Pierre Le Roy,[12] emphasized the identity of French wines and the concept ofterroir. Programs have been enacted, in conjunction with theEuropean Union, to combat the "wine lake" surplus problem byuprooting less desirablegrape varieties and ensuring that vignerons receive technical training in viticulture and winemaking. Many of these actions came in response to declining domestic consumption and slumping sales that followed through the close of the 20th century. Heading into the 21st century, some parts of French wine industry have thrived while others have been faced with a crisis of confidence.[1]
Throughout its history, the French wine industry has been shaped by the influences of both external and internal forces. Three of the more prominent and pervasive influences came from the English/British people through both commercial interest and political factors, the Dutch who were significant players in the wine trade for much of the 16 and 17th century and the Catholic Church which held considerable vineyard properties until the French Revolution.[citation needed]
Over several centuries, a number of factors contributed to the prominent influence that Great Britain has had over the French wine industry. With a cool wet climate, theBritish Isles have historically produced dramatically different styles of wines than the French and in quantities too small to satisfy the London market. This caused the English to look abroad for wines, using the clout of their economic and political power to their advantage. The 1152 marriage between Eleanor of Aquitaine and the future King Henry II of England brought a large portion of southwest France under English rule. When Henry's sonJohn inherited the English crown, he sought to curry favor among the Gascons by bestowing upon them many privileges-the most notable of which was an exemption among Bordeaux merchants from theGrand Coutumeexporttax. With this exemption and favored treatment in London, Bordeaux wine became the cheapest wine in the London market and gained immense popularity among the English, who call itclaret.[8] For over the next 300 years much of Gascony, particular Bordeaux, benefited by the close commercial ties with the English allowing this area to grow in prominence among all French wines. In the aftermath of theHundred Years War, these lands reverted to French rule but with a lasting imprint of English influence.[7]
Following therestoration ofCharles II to the British crown, several French wines came back into fashion in the London market. One such wine was afizzy drink from the Champagne region that was disparaged among French wine drinkers for its faulty bubbles.[7] A Frenchexpatriate,Charles de Saint-Évremond, introduced this sparkling style of Champagne to the London court and it was met with enthusiastic popularity. The development of stronger, thicker bottles by British glass makers encouraged more Champagne winemakers to actively start producing sparkling wine for the lucrative British market.[13]
In the 16th and 17th century, the Dutch (particularly those fromHolland andZeeland) wielded considerable influence over the development of French wine. Their strength was their sizablemerchant fleet and trading access across Northern Europe in places like theBaltic andHanseatic states. When political conflicts between the French and English flared up, it was the Dutch who stepped in to fill the void and serve as a continuing link funneling the wines of Bordeaux and La Rochelle into England. The town ofMiddelburg earned a reputation across Europe as a center for trade of French wine.[14]
Dutch interest in the wine trade prompted advancement in winemaking styles and technology. One problem that plagued the French wine trade was the perishability of wine which rarely survived longer than the nextvintage. French wine during this period was often unbalanced and unstable, being not properly clarified during wine making and lacking the alcohol needed to preserve the wine.[15] This was of concern to the Dutch who would sometimes be delayed in their trading with ports along theBaltic andWhite Seas when they became impassable in the winter. To ward off spoilage the Dutch developed methods offortification by addingbrandy to the wine to stop fermentation and increase the life expectancy of the wine. The Dutch further introduced to the French a method ofsulfuring the wines (known asallumettes hollandaises) which has the effect of stabilizing the wine and preventing some degree of spoilage.[14] The introduction of new Dutch winemaking techniques helped antiquated methods such as the use oflead fall into disuse. Used since the days of Ancient Rome, lead was used in regions such asPoitou to helpsweeten and preserve some of their wines leading tovarious ailments that collectively were known as the "Poitoucolic". By the end of the 17th century, most Poitou winemakers had stopped using lead in their wine production.[15]
The Dutch also promoted the plantings of many white wine varieties that were in fashion through Europe. In regions likeMuscadet, in the Loire Valley, the Dutch encouraged the planting ofMelon de Bourgogne which produced more reliable harvest than the region's red wine varieties. The practice of blending different grape varieties from different areas was also influenced by the Dutch as a means of improving weaker wines or to adapt wines to changing public tastes. When the English developed tastes for stronger sweeter wines, the Dutch were the first to bulk up the Gascon claret wines with the wines ofCahors.[14] Skilled engineers, the Dutch drained the marshy Medoc (left bank) region in the 17th century and began planting the region with vineyards. Prior to this time, Bordeaux's most sought-after wines came from the well-drained soil of the Graves region including the estate ofChateau Haut-Brion. By the end of the 17th century, with the aid of the Dutch, the futureFirst Growth estates ofChateau Lafite,Latour andMargaux were planted and already starting to get notice abroad.[8]
While there have been theories put forth that the Christian Church "saved" viticulture in France following the fall of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes that invaded the region were known to be fond of wine themselves leaving little evidence that viticulture and winemaking needed to be "saved" during this period. The Church, however, did become one of the most prominent and influential forces in French winemaking during the medieval period due to their vast holdings of vineyard lands.[16] TheMerovingian period of Frankish rule saw the early seeds of monastic influence on French wine whenGuntram,Clovis' grandson, gave a vineyard to the abbey ofSt. Benignus atDijon. In 630, theAbbey of Bèze nearGevrey received vineyards inBeaune, Gevrey andVosnee as a gift from the duke of Lower Burgundy.[7]
The reign of Charlemagne brought in a period of peace, stability and prosperity that helped foster the growth of the emerging wine regions of France. In 775 he gave the abbey ofSaulieu a plot of land that bears his name today in thegrand cru vineyard ofCorton-Charlemagne. The spread of viticulture during Charlemagne's reign was fueled in part by the expansion of the Christian Church which needed a daily supply of wine for the sacrament of theEucharist, the monks' personal consumption as well as for hospitality extended to guests. Important guests visiting the monasteries would be more likely to support the Church generously if they were entertained well during their stay. The extent of their holdings of vineyards and the quality of wine they produced became a status symbol for the bishops, putting them on par with the nobility. Somebishoprics even moved to be closer to their vineyard holdings, such as the bishopric ofSaint-Quentin which moved toNoyon near Paris and the bishopric ofLangres which moved to Dijon just north of theCôte-d'Or in Burgundy. The influence of Christianity helped to create two categories of wine in Medieval France-simple, basic wine meant for daily consumption and more superior, premium wine that was reserved for impressing important guests.[17]
Various monastic orders became synonymous with certain wine regions due to their ownership of what is today considered some of most prized vineyards lands. The first group of monks to acquire vineyards on a large scale were theBenedictines ofCluny who came to own most of what is nowGevrey-Chambertin by 1273. In 1232, the abbey ofSt-Vivant received the vineyard lands now known asRomanee-Conti,Romanee-St-Vivant,Richebourg,La Romanee andLa Tâche as a gift from the duchess of Burgundy.[7] The Benedictines were also prominent vineyard owners with the wine produced in the abbey ofSt-Pourcain being one of the most highly regarded wines in medieval France. In the Loire Valley, the Benedictine monasteries inBourgueil andLa Charité extensively cultivated the lands around them while the abbey ofSt-Nicolas included large vineyards aroundAnjou. In Bordeaux, the Benedictines owned several properties including what became the modern classified estate ofChateau Prieure inCantenac as well as theGraves estates ofChateau Carbonnieux. Other regions with Benedictine vineyards includeCornas andSt-Peray in the Rhone as well six monastic estates in the Champagne region ofRheims.[16]
One of the most famous holdings of theCistercians was the walled vineyard ofClos de Vougeot but the extent of their lands included holdings inBeaune,Meursault,Pommard as well asChablis where thePontigny Abbey was believed to have been the first to plantChardonnay in the region. Cistercian vineyards produced highly regarded wines inProvence andSancerre.[16] The Cistercian monks applied their ascetic habits, skilled labour and organization philosophy to wine making in a manner unique to French wine. Through their detailed record-keeping and observations, the monks began to notice that certain plots of lands, even those only a few feet apart, produced remarkably different wines. These observation laid the groundwork on the identification of certain "crus" of vineyards and the French understanding ofterroir.[18]
Through their extensive holdings, the monasteries of the Christian Church made many advances in French winemaking and viticulture with the study and observation of key vineyards sites, identifying the grape varieties that grew best in certain regions and discovering new methods of production.[16] In 1531 it was a monk in the Languedoc region ofLimoux that discovered the process of turning still wine intosparkling wine.[6] Though the widespread tale ofDom Pérignon "inventing" the sparkling wine known as Champagne is inaccurate, the Benedictine monk nonetheless made several important contributions to the history of French wine. In 1668, Brother Pierre Perignon was appointed treasurer of the abbey ofHautvillers, located north ofÉpernay with his role including management of the abbey's vineyard holdings and the collection of tithes from the community in the form of grapes and wines. Dom Perignon took the wine from all these sources and blended them to produce a wine that fetched far higher prices than wines from other parts of Champagne. Perignon's practice of blending from several different vineyards was unique and largely unheard of till then. He also pioneered the practice of severepruning in the vineyard to keep yields low.[19]