The history ofEstonia forms a part of thehistory of Europe. Human settlement in what is now Estonia became possible 13,000–11,000 years ago, after the ice from the lastglacial era had melted, and signs of the first permanent population in the region date from around 9000 BC.[1]
Themedieval indigenous population of Estonia was one of the lastpagan civilisations in Europe to adoptChristianity following theNorthern Crusades in the 13th century.[2] After the crusaders had conquered the area by 1227, Estonia was first ruled by theKing of Denmark in the north (until 1345), and then until 1559 by theTeutonic Order, and by the ecclesiastical states of theHoly Roman Empire, which from 1418 to 1562 covered the whole of Estonia, forming a part of theLivonian Confederation. After 1559, Estonia became part of theKingdom of Sweden until 1710, when theTsardom of Russia (Muscovy) conquered the entire area during theGreat Northern War of 1700–1721. Throughout this period thelocal German-speaking nobility enjoyed significant autonomy, andHigh German (earlier alsoLow German andLatin) served as the main language of administration and education.
TheEstophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840) led to theEstonian national awakening in the middle of the 19th century. In the aftermath of World War I (1914–1918) and the revolutions of 1917 that brought the end to theRussian Empire, Estonia wasdeclared an independent democratic republic in February 1918. In theEstonian War of Independence (1918–1920) the newly proclaimed state successfully fought against the SovietRussianBolshevist invasion, and in the February 1920Russian-Estonian Peace Treaty theSoviet Russia recognised Estonian independence in perpetuity.
During World War II (1939–1945) theSoviet Union invaded and occupied Estonia in June 1940 and illegally annexed the country.[a] In the course ofOperation Barbarossa,Nazi Germany occupied Estonia in 1941; the Soviet Army reoccupied Estonia in 1944. Estonia regained its independence in August 1991 and joined theEuropean Union andNATO in 2004.
The region has been populated since the end of theLate Pleistocene glaciation, about 9,000 BC. The earliest traces of human settlement in Estonia are connected with theKunda culture, a culture whose origins involved a mix ofWestern Hunter-Gatherer andEastern Hunter-Gatherer ancestry, with more of the former than the latter.[6] The earlyMesolithicPulli settlement is located by thePärnu River. It has been dated to the beginning of the 9th millennium BC. The Kunda culture received its name from theLammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, which dates from earlier than 8500 BC.[7] Bone and stone artifacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as inLatvia, northernLithuania and southernFinland. Among minerals,flint andquartz were used the most for making cutting tools.
The beginning of theNeolithic Period is marked by theceramics of the Narva culture, and appear in Estonia at the beginning of the 5th millennium. The oldest finds date from around 4900 BC. The first pottery was made of thick clay mixed with pebbles, shells or plants. The Narva-type ceramics are found throughout almost the entire Estonian coastal region and on the islands. The stone and bone tools of the era have a notable similarity with the artifacts of the Kunda culture.
Around the beginning of 4th millennium BCComb Ceramic culture arrived in Estonia.[8] Until the early 1980s the arrival ofBalto-Finnic peoples, the ancestors of the Estonians, Finns, and Livonians, on the shores of theBaltic Sea was associated with the Comb Ceramic Culture.[9] However, such a linking of archaeologically defined cultural entities with linguistic ones cannot be proven, and it has been suggested that the increase of settlement finds in the period is more likely to have been associated with an economic boom related to the warming of climate. Some researchers have even argued that aUralic language may have been spoken in Estonia and Finland since the end of the last glaciation.[10]
The burial customs of the comb pottery people included additions of figures of animals, birds, snakes and men carved from bone andamber. Antiquities from comb pottery culture are found from northern Finland to easternPrussia.
The beginning of the Late Neolithic Period about 2200 BC is characterized by the appearance of theCorded Ware culture, pottery with corded decoration and well-polished stone axes (s.c. boat-shape axes). Evidence of agriculture is provided by charred grains of wheat on the wall of a corded-ware vessel found in Iru settlement. Osteological analysis show an attempt was made to domesticate thewild boar.[11]
Specific burial customs were characterized by the dead being laid on their sides with their knees pressed against their breast, one hand under the head. Objects placed into the graves were made of the bones of domesticated animals.[8]
The beginning of theBronze Age in Estonia is dated to approximately 1800 BC. The development of the borders between theFinnic peoples and theBalts was under way. The first fortified settlements, Asva and Ridala on the island ofSaaremaa and Iru in northern Estonia, began to be built. The development of shipbuilding facilitated the spread of bronze. Changes took place in burial customs, a new type of burial ground spread from Germanic to Estonian areas, and stonecist graves and cremation burials became increasingly common, alongside a small number of boat-shaped stone graves.[12]
About the 7th century BC, a large meteorite hitSaaremaa island and created theKaali craters.
About 325 BC, the Greek explorerPytheas possibly visited Estonia. TheThule island he described has been identified asSaaremaa byLennart Meri,[13] though this identification is not widely considered probable, as Saaremaa lies far south of theArctic Circle.
ThePre-Roman Iron Age began in Estonia about 500 BC and lasted until the middle of the 1st century AD. The oldest iron items were imported, although since the 1st century iron wassmelted from local marsh and lake ore. Settlement sites were located mostly in places that offered natural protection. Fortresses were built, although used temporarily. The appearance of squareCeltic fields surrounded by enclosures in Estonia date from the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The majority of stones with man-made indents, which presumably were connected with magic designed to increase crop fertility, date from this period. A new type of grave, quadrangular burial mounds, began to develop. Burial traditions show the clear beginning ofsocial stratification.TheRoman Iron Age in Estonia is roughly dated to between 50 and 450 AD, the era that was affected by the influence of theRoman Empire. In material culture this is reflected by a few Roman coins, some jewellery and artefacts. The abundance of iron artefacts in southern Estonia speaks of closer mainland ties with southern areas, while the islands of western and northern Estonia communicated with their neighbors mainly by sea. By the end of the period three clearly defined tribal dialectical areas—northern Estonia, southern Estonia, and western Estonia including the islands—had emerged, the population of each having formed its own understanding of identity.[14]
The name "Estonia" occurs first in a form ofAestii in the 1st century AD byTacitus; however, it might have indicated Baltic tribes living in the area. In the Scandinaviansagas (9th century) the term started to be used to indicate the Estonians.[15]
Ptolemy in hisGeography III in the middle of the 2nd century AD mentions theOsilians among other dwellers on the Baltic shore.[16]
According to the 5th-century Roman historianCassiodorus, the people known to Tacitus asAestii were the Estonians. The extent of their territory in early medieval times is disputed, but the nature of their religion is not. They were known to the Scandinavians as experts in wind-magic, as were theSami people (known at the time as Finns) in the North.[17] Cassiodorus mentions Estonia in his book V. Letters 1–2 dating from the 6th century.[18]
TheChud people, mentioned in earlyRus' chronicles, starting with thePrimary Chronicle, are thought to be the Ests or Esthonians by some historians.[19]
In the 1st centuries AD political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (kihelkond) and the county (maakond). The parish consisted of several villages. Nearly all parishes had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the parish elder. The county was composed of several parishes, also headed by an elder. By the 13th century the following major counties had developed in Estonia:Saaremaa (Osilia),Läänemaa (Rotalia or Maritima),Harjumaa (Harria),Rävala (Revalia),Virumaa (Vironia),Järvamaa (Jervia),Sakala (Saccala), andUgandi (Ugaunia).[20]
Varbola Stronghold was one of the largest circular rampart fortresses and trading centers built in Estonia,Harju County (Latin:Harria) at the time.
In the 11th century the Scandinavians are frequently chronicled as combating theVikings from the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.With the rise of Christianity, centralized authority in Scandinavia and Germany eventually led to theBaltic crusades.The east Baltic world was transformed by military conquest: first theLivs,Letts andEstonians, then thePrussians and theFinns underwent defeat,baptism,military occupation and sometimes extermination by groups of Germans, Danes and Swedes.[21]
Estonia was one of the last corners of medieval Europe to beChristianized. In 1193Pope Celestine III called for a crusade againstpagans in Northern Europe. TheNorthern Crusades from northern Germany established the stronghold ofRiga (in modern Latvia). With the help of the newly converted local tribes ofLivs andLetts, the crusaders initiated raids into part of what is present-day Estonia in 1208. Estonian tribes fiercely resisted the attacks from Riga and occasionally themselves sacked territories controlled by the crusaders. In 1217 the German crusading order theSword Brethren and their recently converted allies won a major battle in which the Estonian commanderLembitu was killed.
Northern Estonia was conquered by Danish crusaders led by kingWaldemar II, who arrived in 1219 on the site of the Estonian town of Lindanisse[22] (nowTallinn) at (Latin)Revelia (Estonian)Revala orRävala, the adjacent ancient Estonian county. The Danish Army defeated the Estonians at theBattle of Lindanise.
The Estonians ofHarria started a rebellion in 1343 (St. George's Night Uprising). The province was occupied by theLivonian Order as a result. In 1346, the Danish dominions in Estonia (Harria andVironia) were sold for 10 000marks to theLivonian Order.
The first written mention of theEstonian Swedes comes from 1294, in the laws of the town ofHaapsalu. Estonian Swedes are one of the earliest known minorities in Estonia. They have also been called "Coastal Swedes" (Rannarootslased inEstonian), or according to their settlement areaRuhnu Swedes, Hiiu Swedes etc. They themselves used the expressionaibofolke ("island people"), and called their homelandAiboland.
The ancient areas of Swedish settlement in Estonia were Ruhnu Island,Hiiumaa Island, the west coast and smaller islands (Vormsi,Noarootsi, Sutlepa, Riguldi,Osmussaar), the northwest coast of the Harju District (Nõva,Vihterpalu,Kurkse, thePakri Peninsula and thePakri Islands), andNaissaar Island near Tallinn. The towns with a significant percentage of Swedish population have beenHaapsalu and Tallinn.
In earlier times Swedes also lived on the coasts of Saaremaa, the southern part ofLäänemaa, the eastern part ofHarjumaa and the western part ofVirumaa.
In 1227 the Sword Brethren conquered the last indigenous stronghold on the Estonian island ofSaaremaa. After the conquest, all the remaining local pagans of Estonia were ostensiblyChristianized. An ecclesiastical stateTerra Mariana was established. The conquerors exercised control through a network of strategically locatedcastles.[23]
The territory was then divided between theLivonian branch of theTeutonic Order, theBishopric of Dorpat (in Estonian:Tartu piiskopkond) and theBishopric of Ösel-Wiek (in Estonian:Saare-Lääne piiskopkond). The northern part of Estonia – more exactly Harjumaa and Virumaa districts (in German: Harrien und Wierland) – was a nominal possession ofDenmark until 1346.Tallinn (Reval) was grantedLübeck town rights by the king of Denmark in 1248.[24] It became a member city of theHanseatic League at the end of the 13th century. In 1343, the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa (Oesel) Island started a rebellion (St. George's Night Uprising) against the rule of their German-speaking landlords. The uprising was put down, and four elected Estonian "kings" were killed inPaide during peace negotiations in 1343. Vesse, the rebel King of Saaremaa, was hanged in 1344.[25] Despite the rebellions, andMuscovite invasions in 1481 and 1558, theMiddle Low German-speaking minority established themselves as the dominating force in the society of Estonia, both as traders and the urban middle-class in the cities, and as landowners in the countryside, through a network ofmanorial estates.[26]
Protestant Reformation, initiated in 1517 byMartin Luther, spread rapidly to Estonia in the 1520s, with the name of Martin Luther officially mentioned for the first time at the Prelates' Conference at Ronneburg on July 28, 1521.[27] Early EstonianLutheranism was most popular in larger towns with significant merchant classes,[27] and soon contributed to the spread of literacy among thecommoners. Many peasants were traditionalists and comfortable withCatholic traditions, delaying the adoption of the new church; despite this, after 1600, Swedish Lutheranism began to dominate the building, furnishing, and (modest) decoration of new churches. Church architecture was now designed to encourage congregational understanding of and involvement in the services. Pews and seats were installed for the common people to make listening to the sermon less of a burden, and altars often featured depictions of theLast Supper, but images and statues of thesaints had disappeared.[28] Church services were now given in the local vernacular, instead ofLatin, and the first books were printed in Estonian.[29]
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During theLivonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control, while southern Estonia briefly came under the control of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 1580s. In 1625, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces ofEstonia in the north andLivonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia, a division which persisted until the early 20th century.
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor asked for help ofGustav I of Sweden, and theKingdom of Poland also began direct negotiations with Gustavus, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustavus I Vasa died. The chances for success ofMagnus von Lyffland and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 and 1570. In the former case he had been recognised as theirsovereign by theBishopric of Ösel–Wiek and theBishopric of Courland, and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of theBishopric of Dorpat; theBishopric of Reval with theHarrien-Wierlandgentry were on his side; and theLivonian Order conditionally recognised his right of ownership of the principality of Estonia.
Then, along withArchbishopWilhelm von Brandenburg of theArchbishopric of Riga and hiscoadjutorChristoph von Mecklenburg, Kettler gave to Magnus the portions of theKingdom of Livonia which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land. OnceEric XIV of Sweden became king, he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued peace withMuscovy and spoke to theburghers ofReval city. He offered them goods to submit to him, as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561, they submitted to him, contrary to the persuasions of Kettler to the burghers. The King's brother Johan married the Polish princessCatherine Jagiellon. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned toFinland, Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent. Shortly after that Erik XIV started acting quickly and lost any allies he was about to obtain, either from Magnus or the Archbishop ofRiga. Magnus was upset he had been tricked out of hisinheritance ofHolstein.
After Swedenoccupied Reval,Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. The brothers were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562, in order to help his brother obtain more land and stall further Swedish advance. Erik XIV did not like this and theNorthern Seven Years' War between theFree City of Lübeck, Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568, Erik XIV becameinsane, and his brother Johan III took his place. Johan III ascended to the throne of Sweden, and due to his friendship with Poland he began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and exercise strength over Denmark.
After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, KingSigismund II Augustus of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, know that he was ready for peace. On 13 December 1570, theTreaty of Stettin was concluded. It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. The analysis indicates that during theLivonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and avoid the division of Livonia. That is why Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal withIvan the Terrible, proved a suitable figurehead for this faction.
The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (Hofleute) under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 (Battle of Pärnu andSiege of Reval (1565)), in 1570–1571 (Siege of Reval (1570–1571); 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came the sale ofWiek to theDanish Crown and the loss of the territory to theMuscovites). In 1575 after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed the fight for not only Livonia, but also everywhere due to an understanding he made withRzeczpospolita. In 1578 Magnus retired to Rzeczpospolita, and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.
Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies,Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1578, when theCrimean Khanate devastated southern Muscovian territories and burnt down suburb(posad) of Moscow (seeRusso-Crimean Wars), the drought and epidemics had fatally affected the economy, the policy ofoprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while theGrand Duchy of Lithuaniahad united with theKingdom of Poland and acquired an energetic leader,Stefan Batory, supported by theOttoman Empire (1576). Batory replied with a series of threeoffensives against Muscovy, trying to cut theKingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579 with 22,000 men he retookPolotsk. During the second, in 1580, with a 29,000-strong army he tookVelikie Luki, and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started theSiege of Pskov. Frederick II had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlikeSweden and Poland. He came to an agreement withJohn III of Sweden in 1580 giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control ofDucatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. AfterMagnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in theDuchy of Courland and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance. Except for the island ofŒsel,Denmark was out of theBaltic by 1585. In 1598Polish Livonia was divided into:
During 1582–83 southern Estonia (Livonia) became part of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
TheDuchy of Estonia placed itself under Swedish rule in 1561 to receive protection againstRussia andPoland as theLivonian Order lost their foothold in the Baltic provinces. Territorially it represented the northern part of present-day Estonia.
Livonia was conquered from thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1629 in thePolish–Swedish War. By theTreaty of Oliva between the Commonwealth and Sweden in 1660 following theNorthern Wars thePolish–Lithuanian king renounced all claims to the Swedish throne and Livonia was formally ceded to Sweden. Swedish Livonia represents the southern part of present-day Estonia and the northern part of present-dayLatvia (Vidzeme region).
In 1631,Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden forced the nobility to grant the rural commoners greater autonomy. During his rule, in 1632, the firstprinting press, and theuniversity was established in the city ofTartu.
Sweden's defeat by Russia in theGreat Northern War resulted in thecapitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, confirmed by theTreaty of Nystad in 1721, and Russian rule was then imposed on what later became modern Estonia. Nonetheless, the legal system,Lutheran church, local and town governments, secondary and higher education continued mostly in German language until the late 19th century and partially until 1918.
Under the imperial Russian rule, from the 1720s to theFirst World War, in Estonia the localBaltic German minority continued to own most of the land and businesses, and dominated in all cities. The local German-speakers were Lutherans, and so were the vast majority of the Estonian population.Moravian Protestant missionaries made an impact in the eighteenth century, and translated the complete Bible into Estonian. Some Germans complained, the imperial government banned the Moravians from 1743 to 1764. A theological faculty opened at theImperial University of Dorpat (Tartu), with German professors. The local German gentry controlled the local churches and rarely hired Estonian graduates, but they made their mark as intellectuals and Estonian nationalists. In the 1840s, there was a movement of Lutheran farmers into theRussian Orthodox Church. Theczar discouraged them when he realized they were challenging the local authorities.[30] The German character of the Lutheran churches alienated many nationalists, who emphasized the secular in their subcultures. For example,choral societies offered a secular alternative to church music.[31]
By 1819, theBaltic governorates were the first in the Russian empire in whichserfdom was abolished, enabling an increasing number of farmers to rent or purchase land, as well as triggering a wave of internal migration of landless rural Estonians into the growing cities. These moves created the economic foundation for the coming to life of the Estonian national identity, as the country was caught in a current of national awakening that began sweeping through Europe in the mid-19th century. The general population, as well as the students and faculty of the multiculturalImperial University of Dorpat, were largely uninterested in theRussification programmes introduced by the imperial Russian central government in the 1890s.[32]
Educated German immigrants and localBaltic Germans in Estonia, educated at German universities, introducedEnlightenment ideas of rational thinking, ideas that propagated freedom of thinking and brotherhood and equality. TheFrench Revolution provided a powerful motive for the "enlightened" local upper class to create literature for the commoners.[33] The abolition of serfdom on in 1816 in southern Estonia (thenGovernorate of Livonia), and 1819 in northern Estonia (thenGovernorate of Estonia) by EmperorAlexander I of Russia gave rise to a debate as to the future fate of the Estonian-speaking population. Although many Baltic Germans regarded the future of the Estonians as being a fusion with the Germans, many other educated andEstophile Germans admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13th century.[34] The Estophile Enlightenment Period formed the transition from religious Estonian literature to newspapers printed in Estonian for the general public.
A cultural movement sprang forth to adopt the use ofEstonian as the language of instruction in schools, all-Estonian song festivals were held regularly after 1869, and a national literature in Estonian developed.Kalevipoeg, Estonia's national epic, was published in 1861 in both Estonian and German.
1889 marked the beginning of the central government-sponsored policy ofRussification. The impact of this was that many of theBaltic German legal institutions were either abolished or had to do their work in Russian – a good example of this is theUniversity of Tartu.
As theRussian Revolution of 1905 swept through Estonia, the Estonians called forfreedom of the press andassembly, for universalfranchise, and for national autonomy. Estonian gains were minimal, but the tense stability that prevailed between 1905 and 1917 allowed Estonians to advance the aspiration of national statehood.
Estonia as a unified political entity first emerged after the RussianFebruary Revolution of 1917. With the collapse of theRussian Empire inWorld War I,Russia's Provisional Government granted national autonomy to aunified Estonia in April. TheGovernorate of Estonia in the north (corresponding to the historicDanish Estonia) was united with the northern part of theGovernorate of Livonia. Elections for a provisional parliament,Maapäev, was organized, with theMenshevik andBolshevik factions of theRussian Social Democratic Labour Party obtaining a part of the vote. On 5 November 1917, two days before theOctober Revolution inSaint Petersburg, Estonian Bolshevik leaderJaan Anvelt violently usurped power from the legally constituted Maapäev in a coup d'état, forcing the Maapäev underground.
In February, after the collapse of the peace talks between Soviet Russia and theGerman Empire, mainland Estonia was occupied by the Germans. Bolshevik forces retreated to Russia. Between the RussianRed Army's retreat and the arrival of advancing German troops, theSalvation Committee of the Estonian National Council Maapäev issued theEstonian Declaration of Independence[35] inPärnu on 23 February 1918.
After the collapse of the short-livedpuppet government of theUnited Baltic Duchy and the withdrawal of German troops in November 1918, anEstonian Provisional Government retook office. A military invasion by the Red Army followed a few days later, however, marking the beginning of theEstonian War of Independence (1918–1920). The Estonian army cleared the entire territory of Estonia of the Red Army by February 1919. On 5–7 April 1919 theEstonian Constituent Assembly was elected.
By the summer of 1919, Estonia had reached its largest territorial extent ever, having pushed the Red Army far beyond Estonia's borders on the Southern and Eastern fronts, with the assistance of theNorthwestern army under the Estonian command in the east.
On 2 February 1920, theTreaty of Tartu was signed by the Republic of Estonia and theRussian SFSR. The terms of the treaty stated that Russia renounced in perpetuity all rights to the territory of Estonia.
The firstConstitution of Estonia was adopted on 15 June 1920. The Republic of Estonia obtained international recognition and became a member of theLeague of Nations in 1921.
The first period of independence lasted 22 years, beginning in 1918. Estonia underwent a number of economic, social, and political reforms necessary to come to terms with its new status as asovereign state. Economically and socially,land reform in 1919 was the most important step. Large estate holdings belonging to theBaltic nobility were redistributed among farmers and especially among volunteers in theEstonian War of Independence. Estonia's principal markets becameScandinavia, the United Kingdom, and western Europe, with some exports to the United States and to theSoviet Union.
The first constitution of the Republic of Estonia, adopted in 1920, established aparliamentary form of government. The parliament (Riigikogu) consisted of 100 members elected for three-year terms. Between 1920 and 1934, Estonia had 21 governments.
A mass anticommunist and antiparliamentaryVaps Movement emerged in the 1930s.[36] In October 1933, areferendum on constitutional reform initiated by the Vaps Movement was approved by 72.7 percent.[36] The league spearheaded replacement of the parliamentary system with apresidential form of government and laid the groundwork for an April 1934 presidential election, which it expected to win. However, the Vaps Movement was thwarted by a pre-emptiveself-coup on 12 March 1934, by thenHead of StateKonstantin Päts, who established his own authoritarian rule until a new constitution came to force in 1938. The parliament was not in session between 1934 and 1938, and the country wasruled by decree by Päts. The Vaps Movement was officially banned and finally disbanded in December 1935. On 6 May 1936, 150 members of the league went on trial and 143 of them were convicted to long-term prison sentences. They were granted anamnesty and freed in 1938, by which time the league had lost most of its popular support.
The interwar period was one of great cultural advancement.[37] Estonian language schools were established, and artistic life of all kinds flourished. One of the more notable cultural acts of the independence period, unique in western Europe at the time of its passage in 1925, was a guarantee of cultural autonomy tominority groups comprising at least 3,000 persons, includingJews (seehistory of the Jews in Estonia). Historians see the lack of any bloodshed after a nearly "700-year German rule" as indication that it must have been mild by comparison.
Estonia had pursued a policy ofneutrality, but it was of no consequence after theSoviet Union andNazi Germany signed theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact on 23 August 1939. In the agreement, the two great powers agreed to divide up the countries situated between them (Poland,Lithuania,Latvia, Estonia, andFinland), with Estonia falling in the Soviet "sphere of influence". After the invasion of Poland, theOrzeł incident took place when Polish submarineORPOrzeł looked for shelter inTallinn but escaped after the Soviet Union attacked Poland on 17 September. Estonia's lack of will and/or inability to disarm and intern the crew caused the Soviet Union to accuse Estonia of "helping them escape" and claim that Estonia was not neutral. On 24 September 1939, the Soviet Union threatened Estonia with war unless provided with military bases in the country—an ultimatum with which the Estonian government complied.
Following the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and theSoviet invasion of Poland, warships of theRed Navy appeared off Estonian ports on 24 September 1939, and Soviet bombers began a threatening patrol overTallinn and the nearby countryside.[38] Moscow demanded Estonia assent to an agreement which allowed the USSR to establish military bases and station 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for the duration of the European war.[39] The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum, signing the corresponding agreement on 28 September 1939.
The Republic of Estonia wasoccupied by the Soviet Union in June 1940.[40][41][42]
On 12 June 1940, the order for a total militaryblockade of Estonia by the SovietBaltic Fleet was given.[43][44]
On 14 June 1940, while the world's attention was focused on the fall of Paris toNazi Germany a day earlier, the Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect, and two Soviet bombers downed Finnish passenger airplaneKaleva flying from Tallinn toHelsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn,Riga and Helsinki. US Foreign Service employeeHenry W. Antheil Jr. was killed in the crash.[45]
On 16 June 1940, the Soviet Union invaded Estonia.[46]Molotov accused the Baltic states of conspiracy against the Soviet Union and delivered an ultimatum to Estonia for the establishment of a government approved of by the Soviets.
The Estonian government decided, given the overwhelming Soviet force both on the borders and inside the country, not to resist, to avoid bloodshed and open war.[47] Estonia accepted the ultimatum, and the statehood of Estonia de facto ceased to exist as the Red Army exited from their military bases in Estonia on 17 June. The following day, some 90,000 additional troops entered the country. Themilitary occupation of the Republic of Estonia was rendered official by a communist coup d'état supported by the Soviet troops,[48] followed by parliamentary elections where all but pro-Communist candidates were outlawed. The newly elected parliament proclaimed Estonia a Socialist Republic on 21 July 1940 and unanimously requested Estonia to be accepted into theSoviet Union. Those who had fallen short of the "political duty" of voting Estonia into the USSR, who had failed to have their passports stamped for so voting, were allowed to be shot in the back of the head by Soviet tribunals.[49] Estonia was formally annexed into the Soviet Union on 6 August and renamed theEstonian Soviet Socialist Republic.[50] In 1979, theEuropean Parliament would condemn "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues," and sought to help restore Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian independence through political means.[51]
The Soviet authorities, having gained control over Estonia, immediately imposed a regime of terror. During the first year of Soviet occupation (1940–1941) over 8,000 people, including most of the country's leading politicians and military officers, were arrested. About 2,200 of the arrested were executed in Estonia, while most of the others were moved toGulag prison camps in Russia, from where very few were later able to return alive. On 14 June 1941, when massdeportations took place simultaneously in all three Baltic countries, about 10,000 Estonian civilians were deported toSiberia and other remote areas of the Soviet Union, where nearly half of them later perished. Of the 32,100 Estonian men who were forcibly relocated to Russia under the pretext of mobilisation into the Soviet army after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, nearly 40 percent died within the next year in the so-called "labour battalions" of hunger, cold and overworking. During the first Soviet occupation of 1940–41 about 500 Jews were deported toSiberia.
Estonian graveyards and monuments were destroyed. Among others, theTallinn Military Cemetery had the majority of gravestones from 1918 to 1944 destroyed by the Soviet authorities, and this graveyard became reused by theRed Army.[52] Other cemeteries destroyed by the authorities during the Soviet era in Estonia includeBaltic German cemeteries established in 1774 (Kopli cemetery,Mõigu cemetery) and the oldest cemetery in Tallinn, from the 16th century,Kalamaja cemetery.
Many countries including the United States did not recognize the seizure of Estonia by the USSR. Such countries recognized Estonian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in many countries in the name of their former governments. These aging diplomats persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Baltic independence.
Ernst Jaakson, the longest-serving foreign diplomatic representative to the United States, served as vice-consul from 1934, and asconsul general in charge of the Estonian legation in the United States from 1965 until reestablishment of Estonia's independence. On 25 November 1991, he presented credentials as Estonian ambassador to the United States.[53]
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AfterNazi Germany invaded theSoviet Union on 22 June 1941, and theWehrmacht reached Estonia in July 1941, most Estonians greeted the Germans with relatively open arms and hoped to restore independence. But it soon[when?] became clear that sovereignty was out of the question. Estonia became a part of the German-occupied "Ostland". ASicherheitspolizei was established for internal security under the leadership ofAin-Ervin Mere. The initial enthusiasm that accompanied the liberation from Soviet occupation quickly waned as a result, and the Germans had limited success in recruiting volunteers. Thedraft was introduced in 1942, resulting in some 3,400 men fleeing to Finland to fight in theFinnish Army rather than join the Germans.Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 (Estonian:soomepoisid) was formed out of Estonian volunteers in Finland. With the Allied victory over Germany becoming certain in 1944, the only option to save Estonia's independence was to stave off a new Soviet invasion of Estonia until Germany's capitulation.
By January 1944, the front was pushed back by the Soviet Army almost all the way to the former Estonian border.Narva was evacuated.Jüri Uluots, the last legitimate prime minister of the Republic of Estonia (according to the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia) prior to its fall to the Soviet Union in 1940, delivered a radio address that implored all able-bodied men born from 1904 through 1923 to report for military service. (Before this, Uluots had opposed Estonian mobilization.) The call drew support from all across the country: 38,000 volunteers jammed registration centers.[54] Several thousand Estonians who had joined the Finnish army came back across theGulf of Finland to join the newly formed Territorial Defense Force, assigned to defend Estonia against the Soviet advance. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war Estonia would be able to attract Western support for the cause of Estonia's independence from the USSR and thus ultimately succeed in achieving independence.[55]
The initial formation of the volunteer SS Estonianlegion created in 1942 was eventually expanded to become a full-sized conscript division of theWaffen-SS in 1944, the20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS. The Estonian units saw action defending theNarva line throughout 1944.
As the Germans started to retreat on 18 September 1944,Jüri Uluots, the last Prime Minister of the Estonian Republic prior to Soviet occupation, assumed the responsibilities of president (as dictated in the Constitution) and appointed a new government while seeking recognition from theAllies. On 22 September 1944, as the last German units pulled out of Tallinn, the city was re-occupied by the Soviet Red Army. The new Estonian government fled toStockholm,Sweden, andoperated in exile from 1944 until 1992, whenHeinrich Mark, the prime minister of the Estonian government in exile acting as president, presented his credentials to incoming presidentLennart Meri.
The process of Jewish settlement in Estonia began in the 19th century, when in 1865 Russian TsarAlexander II granted them the right to enter the region. The creation of the Republic of Estonia in 1918 marked the beginning of a new era for the Jews. Approximately 200 Jews fought in combat for the creation of the Republic of Estonia, and 70 of these men were volunteers. From the very first days of its existence as a state, Estonia showed tolerance towards all the peoples inhabiting its territories.[citation needed] On 12 February 1925, the Estonian government passed a law pertaining to the cultural autonomy of minority peoples. The Jewish community quickly prepared its application for cultural autonomy. Statistics on Jewish citizens were compiled. They totaled 3,045, fulfilling the minimum requirement of 3,000. In June 1926 the Jewish Cultural Council was elected and Jewish cultural autonomy was declared. Jewish cultural autonomy was of great interest to the global Jewish community. The Jewish National Endowment presented theGovernment of the Republic of Estonia with a certificate of gratitude for this achievement.[56]
There were, at the time of Soviet occupation in 1940, approximately 2,000 Estonian Jews. Many Jewish people were deported to Siberia along with other Estonians by the Soviets. It is estimated that 500 Jews suffered this fate. With the invasion of the Baltics, it was the intention of the Nazi government to use the Baltic countries as their main area of massgenocide. Consequently, Jews from countries outside the Baltics were shipped there to be exterminated. Out of the approximately 4,300 Jews in Estonia prior to the war, between 1,500 and 2,000 were entrapped by the Nazis,[57] and an estimated 10,000 Jews were killed in Estonia after having been deported to camps there from Eastern Europe.[56]
There have beenseven ethnic Estonians – Ralf Gerrets,Ain-Ervin Mere, Jaan Viik, Juhan Jüriste,Karl Linnas, Aleksander Laak and Ervin Viks – who have faced trials forcrimes against humanity since the reestablishment of Estonian independence and the formation of theEstonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity.[58] Markers were put in place for the 60th anniversary of the mass executions that were carried out at the Lagedi,Vaivara[59] andKlooga (Kalevi-Liiva) camps in September 1944.[60]
TheBaltic Germans had voluntarily evacuated to Germany (in accordance with Hitler's order) following theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939.
Almost all the remainingEstonian Swedes fledAiboland in August 1944, often in their small boats to the Swedish island ofGotland.
The Russian minority grew significantly in numbers during the postwar era.
InWorld War II Estonia had suffered huge losses. Ports had been destroyed, and 45% of industry and 40% of the railways had become damaged. Estonia's population had decreased by one-fifth, about 200,000 people.[61] Some 10% of the population (over 80,000 people) had fled to the West between 1940 and 1944, first to countries such as Sweden and Finland and then to other western countries, often by refugee ships such as theSS Walnut. More than 30,000 soldiers had been killed in action. In 1944 Russianair raids haddestroyedNarva andone-third of the residential area inTallinn. By the late autumn of 1944, Soviet forces had ushered in a second phase of Soviet rule on the heels of the German troops withdrawing from Estonia, and followed it up by a new wave of arrests and executions of people considered disloyal to the Soviets.[citation needed]
An anti-Sovietguerrilla movement known as theMetsavennad ("Forest Brothers") developed in the countryside, reaching its zenith in 1946–48. It is hard to tell how many people were in the ranks of theMetsavennad; however, it is estimated that at different times there could have been about 30,000–35,000 people. Probablythe last Forest Brother was caught in September 1978, and killed himself during his apprehension.
In March 1949, 20,722 people (2.5% of the population) were deported to Siberia. By the beginning of the 1950s, the occupying regime had suppressed the resistance movement.
After the war the Communist Party of theEstonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ECP) became the pre-eminent organization in the republic. The ethnic Estonian share in the total ECP membership decreased from 90% in 1941 to 48% in 1952.
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AfterStalin's death, Communist Party membership vastly expanded its social base to include more ethnic Estonians. By the mid-1960s, the percentage of ethnic Estonian membership stabilized near 50%. On the eve ofperestroika the ECP claimed about 100,000 members; less than half were ethnic Estonians and they totalled less than 7% of the country's population.
One positive aspect of the post-Stalin era in Estonia was the regranting of permission in the late 1950s for citizens to make contact with foreign countries. In the 1960s, Estonians were thus able to start watchingFinnish television. This electronic "window to the West" afforded Estonians more information on current world affairs and more access to contemporary Western culture and thought than any other group in the Soviet Union.
In the late 1970s, Estonian society grew increasingly concerned about the threat of cultural Russification to the Estonian language and national identity. By 1981, Russian was taught in the first grade of Estonian-language schools and was also introduced into Estonian pre-school teaching.
Tallinn was selected to host thesailing events at the 1980 Summer Olympics, which led to controversy[62] since many governments had notde jure recognized ESSR as part of the USSR. During the preparations to theOlympics, sports buildings were built in Tallinn, along with other general infrastructure and broadcasting facilities. This wave of investment included Tallinn Airport, Hotell Olümpia,Tallinn TV Tower,Pirita Yachting Centre andLinnahall.[63]
On 10 November 1982,Leonid Brezhnev died and was succeeded byYuri Andropov, the former head of theKGB. Andropov introduced limited economic reforms and established an anti-corruption program. On 9 February 1984, Andropov died and was succeeded byKonstantin Chernenko who in turn died on 10 March 1985.[64]
By the beginning of the Gorbachev era, concern over the cultural survival of the Estonian people had reached a critical point. The ECP remained stable in the early perestroika years but waned in the late 1980s. Other political movements, groupings and parties moved to fill the power vacuum. The first and most important was theEstonian Popular Front, established in April 1988 with its own platform, leadership and broad constituency. TheGreens and the dissident-ledEstonian National Independence Party soon followed.
TheEstonian Sovereignty Declaration was issued on 16 November 1988.[65] By 1989 the political spectrum had widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily. The republic'sSupreme Soviet transformed into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (16 November 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by theSupreme Soviet of the Soviet Union that November; a language law making Estonian theofficial language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989).
Despite the emergence of the Popular Front and the Supreme Soviet as a new lawmaking body, since 1989 the different segments of the indigenous Estonian population had been politically mobilized by different and competing actors. The Popular Front's proposal to declare the independence of Estonia as a new, so-called "third republic" whose citizens would be all those living there at the moment, found less and less support over time.
A grassrootsEstonian Citizens' Committees Movement launched in 1989 with the objective of registering all pre-war citizens of the Republic of Estonia and their descendants in order to convene aCongress of Estonia. Their emphasis was on the illegal nature of the Soviet system and that hundreds of thousands of inhabitants of Estonia had not ceased to be citizens of the Estonian Republic which still existedde jure, recognized by the majority of Western nations. Despite the hostility of the mainstream official press and intimidation by Soviet Estonian authorities, dozens of local citizens' committees were elected by popular initiative all over the country. These quickly organized into a nationwide structure, and by the beginning of 1990 over 900,000 people had registered themselves as citizens of the Republic of Estonia.
The spring of 1990 saw two free elections and two alternative legislatures developed in Estonia. On 24 February 1990, the 464-member Congress of Estonia (including 35 delegates of refugee communities abroad) was elected by the registered citizens of the republic. The Congress of Estonia convened for the first time in Tallinn 11–12 March 1990, passing 14 declarations and resolutions. A 70-member standing committee (Eesti Komitee) was elected withTunne Kelam as its chairman.
In March 1991 a referendum was held on the issue of independence. This was somewhat controversial, as holding a referendum could be taken as signalling that Estonian independence would be established rather than "re"-established. There was some discussion about whether it was appropriate to allow the Russian immigrant minority to vote, or if this decision should be reserved exclusively for citizens of Estonia. In the end all major political parties backed the referendum, considering it most important to send a strong signal to the world. To further legitimise the vote, all residents of Estonia were allowed to participate. The result vindicated these decisions, as the referendum produced a strong endorsement for independence. Turnout was 82%, and 64% of all possible voters in the country backed independence, with only 17% against.
Although the majority of Estonia's large Russian-speaking diaspora of Soviet-era immigrants did not support full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and by early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence.
In the 18 March 1990, elections for the 105-member Supreme Soviet, all residents of Estonia were eligible to participate, including all Soviet-era immigrants from the U.S.S.R. and approximately 50,000 Soviet troops stationed there. The Popular Front coalition, composed ofleft andcentrist parties and led by formerCentral Planning Committee officialEdgar Savisaar, gained a parliamentary majority.
On 8 May 1990, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia (renamed the previous day) changed the name to the Republic of Estonia. Through a strict, non-confrontational policy in pursuing independence, Estonia managed to avoid the violence whichLatvia andLithuania incurred in the bloody January 1991 crackdowns and in the border customs-post guard murders that summer. During the attemptedAugust coup in the U.S.S.R., Estonia was able to maintain constant operation and control of its telecommunications facilities, thereby offering the West a clear view into the latest developments and serving as a conduit for swift Western support and recognition of Estonia's own "confirmation" of independence on 20 August 1991. 20 August remains a national holiday in Estonia because of this. Russia as a republic of the U.S.S.R. formally recognized Estonia's independence on 25 August 1991 and called on the U.S.S.R. union government to follow suit.[66] The United States intentionally delayed recognition to 2 September,[67] and theState Council of the Soviet Union issued its recognition on 6 September.
Since the debates about whether the future independent Estonia would be established as a new republic or a continuation of the first republic were not yet complete by the time of the August coup, while the members of the Supreme Soviet generally agreed that independence should be declared rapidly, a compromise was hatched between the two main sides: instead of "declaring" independence, which would imply a new start, or explicitly asserting continuity, the declaration would "confirm" Estonia as a state independent of the Soviet Union, and willing to reestablish diplomatic relations of its own accord. The text of the statement was in Estonian and only a few paragraphs in length.[68]
After more than three years of negotiations, on 31 August 1994, the armed forces of Russia withdrew from Estonia. Since fully regaining independence Estonia has had sixteen governments with ten prime ministers:Mart Laar,Andres Tarand,Tiit Vähi,Mart Siimann,Siim Kallas,Juhan Parts,Andrus Ansip,Taavi Rõivas,Jüri Ratas andKaja Kallas. The PMs of the interim government (1990–1992) wereEdgar Savisaar and Tiit Vähi.
Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties with Western Europe. Estonia opened accession negotiations with theEuropean Union in 1998 and joined in 2004, shortly after becoming a member ofNATO.
On 28 June 1992, Estonian voters approved the constitutional assembly's draft constitution and implementation act, which established a parliamentary government with a president as chief of state and with a government headed by a prime minister. TheRiigikogu, a unicameral legislative body, is the highest organ of state authority. It initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. The prime minister has full responsibility and control over his cabinet.
Parliamentary and presidential elections were held on 20 September 1992. Approximately 68% of the country's 637,000 registered voters cast ballots.Lennart Meri, an outstanding writer and formerMinister of Foreign Affairs, won this election and becamepresident. He chose 32-year-old historian andChristian Democratic Party founderMart Laar as prime minister.
In February 1992, and with amendments in January 1995, the Riigikogu renewed Estonia's 1938 citizenship law, which also provides equal civil protection to resident aliens. Elected on an ambitious programme of reform, Mart Laar's cabinet took several decisive measures (shock therapy). Fast privatization was pursued and the role of the state in the economy as well as in the social affairs was reduced dramatically. After an initial steep decline in GDP, the Estonian economy started to grow again in 1995. Changes came with a social price: theaverage life expectancy in Estonia in 1994 was lower than in Belarus, Ukraine and even Moldova.[69] Among the vulnerable sectors of society, the radical reforms sparked an outrage. In January 1993, a pensioners'demonstration took place in Tallinn, as pensioners felt it was impossible to live with a pension as low as the one in effect at the time (260 EEK (around 20 EUR) a month[70]). The meeting was aggressive and demonstrators attacked the minister of social affairsMarju Lauristin.[71]
On 28 September 1994, theMS Estonia sank as the ship was crossing the Baltic Sea, en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden. The disaster claimed the lives of 852 people (501 of them were Swedes[72]), being one of the worst maritime disasters of the 20th century.[73]
The opposition won the 1995 election, but to a large extent continued with the previous governments' policies.
In 1996, Estonia ratified a border agreement with Latvia and completed work with Russia on a technical border agreement. President Meri was re-elected in free and fair indirect elections in August and September in 1996. During parliamentary elections in 1999, the seats in the Riigikogu were divided as follows: theEstonian Centre Party received 28, thePro Patria Union 18, theEstonian Reform Party 18, the People's Party Moderates (election cartel between Moderates and People's Party) 17, Coalition Party 7, Country People's Party (nowPeople's Union of Estonia) 7, and the United People's Party's electoral cartel 6 seats. Pro Patria Union, the Reform Party, and the Moderates formed a government with Mart Laar as prime minister, whereas the Centre Party with the Coalition Party, People's Union, United People's Party, and members of parliament who were not members of factions formed the opposition in the Riigikogu.
The1999 Parliamentary election, with a 5% threshold and no electoral cartel allowed, resulted in a disaster for the Coalition Party, which achieved only seven seats together with two of its smaller allies. Estonian Ruralfolk Party, which participated the election on its own list, obtained seven seats as well.
The programme of Mart Laar's government was signed by Pro Patria Union, the Reform Party, the Moderates, and the People's Party. The latter two merged soon after, so Mart Laar's second government is widely known asKolmikliit, or the Tripartite coalition. Notwithstanding the different political orientation of the ruling parties, the coalition stayed united until Laar resigned in December 2001, after the Reform Party had broken up the same coalition in Tallinn municipality, making opposition leaderEdgar Savisaar the new mayor of Tallinn. After the resignation of Laar, the Reform Party and Estonian Centre Party formed a coalition that lasted until the next parliamentary election, in 2003.
The Moderates joined with the People's Party on 27 November 1999, forming the People's Party Moderates.
In fall 2001Arnold Rüütel became the President of the Republic of Estonia, and in January 2002 Prime Minister Laar stepped down. On 28 January 2002, the new government was formed from a coalition of the centre-right Estonian Reform Party and the more left wing Centre Party, withSiim Kallas from theReform Party of Estonia asPrime Minister.[74]
Followingparliamentary elections in 2003, the seats were allocated as follows (theUnited People's Party failed to meet the 5% threshold):
Voter turnout was higher than expected at 58%.[75] The results saw the Centre Party win the most votes, but they were only 0.8% ahead of the new Res Publica party.[76] As a result, both parties won 28 seats, which was a disappointment for the Centre Party who had expected to win the most seats.[77] Altogether the right of centre parties won 60 seats, compared to only 41 for the left wing, and so were expected to form the next government.[74][78] Both the Centre and Res Publica parties said that they should get the chance to try and form the next government,[79] while ruling out any deal between themselves.[80] President Rüütel had to decide who he should nominate as Prime Minister and therefore be given the first chance at forming a government.[80] On 2 April he invited the leader of the Res Publica party,Juhan Parts, to form a government,[81] and after negotiations a coalition government composed of Res Publica, the Reform Party and thePeople's Union of Estonia was formed on 10 April.[81]
On 14 September 2003, following negotiations that began in 1998, the citizens of Estonia were asked in a referendum whether or not they wished to join theEuropean Union. With 64% of the electorate turning out, the referendum passed with a 66.83% margin in favor, 33.17% against. Accession to the EU took place on 1 May of the following year.
In February 2004 the People's Party Moderates renamed themselves theSocial Democratic Party of Estonia.[82]
Estonia joinedNATO on 29 March 2004.[83]
On 8 May 2004, a defection of several Centre Party members to form a new party, the Social Liberal Party, over a row concerning the Centrists' "no" stance to joining the European Union changed the allocation of the seats in the Riigikogu. Social-liberals had eight seats, but a hope to form a new party disappeared by 10 May 2005, because most members in the social-liberal group joined other parties.
On 24 March Prime MinisterJuhan Parts announced his resignation following a vote ofno confidence in the Riigikogu againstMinister of JusticeKen-Marti Vaher, which was held on 21 March. The result was 54 pro (Social Democrats, Social Liberals, People's Union, Pro Patria Union and Reform Party) with no against or neutral MPs. 32 MPs (Res Publica and Centre Party) did not take part.[84]
On 4 April 2005, President Rüütel nominated Reform party leaderAndrus Ansip as Prime Minister designate and asked him to form a new government, the eighth in twelve years. Ansip formed a government out of a coalition of his Reform Party with the People's Union and the Centre Party. Approval by the Riigikogu, which by law must decide within 14 days of his nomination, came on 12 April 2005.[85] Ansip was backed by 53 out of 101 members of the Estonian parliament. Forty deputies voted against his candidature. The general consensus in the Estonian media seems to be that the newcabinet, on the level of competence, is not necessarily an improvement over the old one.[citation needed]
On 18 May 2005, Estonia signed a border treaty with theRussian Federation in Moscow.[86] The treaty was ratified by the Riigikogu on 20 June 2005. However, in the end of June the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs informed that it did not intend to become a party to the border treaty and did not consider itself bound by the circumstances concerning the object and the purposes of the treaty because the Riigikogu had attached a preambule to the ratification act that referenced earlier documents that mentioned the Soviet occupation and the uninterrupted legal continuity of the Republic of Estonia during the Soviet period. The issue remains unsolved and is the focus of European-level discussions.
On 4 April 2006, Fatherland Union and Res Publica decided to form a united right-conservative party. The two parties joining was approved on 4 June by both parties in Pärnu. The joined party name is Isamaa ja Res Publica Liit (Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica).[87]
In September 2006,Toomas Hendrik Ilves was elected as the new president of Estonia. He defeated in the Electoral Assembly incumbent one-term presidentArnold Rüütel.[88]
The2007 parliamentary elections have shown an improvement in the scores of the Reform Party, gaining 12 seats and reaching 31 MPs; the Centre Party held, while the unified right-conservativeUnion of Pro Patria and Res Publica lost 16. Socialdemocrats gained 4 seats, while the Greens entered the Parliaments with 7 seats, at the expense of the agrarianPeople's Union which lost 6. The new configuration of the Estonian Parliament shows a prevalence of centre-left parties. The Centre Party, led by the mayor of TallinnEdgar Savisaar, has been increasingly excluded from collaboration, since his open collaboration withPutin'sUnited Russia party, real estate scandals in Tallinn,[89] and theBronze Soldier controversy, considered as a deliberate attempt of splitting the Estonian society by provoking the Russian minority.[90] The lack of a concrete possibility for government alternance in Estonia has been quoted as a concern.[91]
On 14 September 2003, following negotiations that began in 1998, the citizens of Estonia were asked in a referendum whether or not they wished to join theEuropean Union. With 64% of the electorate turning out the referendum passed with a 66.83% margin in favor, 33.17% against.[92] Accession to the EU took place the following year, on 1 May 2004. Estonia becameSchengen area member on 21 December 2007[93]
In itsfirst European Parliament elections in 2004,Estonia elected threeMEPs for theSocial Democratic Party (PES), while the governingRes Publica Party andPeople's Union polled poorly, not being able to gain any of the other three MEP posts. Thevoter turnout in Estonia was one of the lowest of all member countries, at only 26.8%. A similar trend was visible in most of the new member states thatjoined the EU in 2004.
TheEuropean Parliament election of 2009 in Estonia scored a 43.9% turnout – about 17.1% higher than during theprevious election, and slightly above the European average of 42.94%. Six seats were up for taking in this election: two of them were won by theEstonian Centre Party.Estonian Reform Party,Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica,Social Democratic Party and an independent candidateIndrek Tarand (who gathered the support of 102,460 voters, only 1,046 votes less than the winner of the election) all won one seat each. The success of independent candidates has been attributed both to general disillusionment with major parties and the use of closed lists which rendered voters incapable of casting a vote for specific candidates in party lists.
On 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted theeuro.[94] The enlargement of theEurozone was hailed as a good sign during the2008 financial crisis. However, the government cut down public service salaries; the only opposition, in the absence of organised unions, came from Estonian teachers, whose salary cuts were therefore limited.[91]
Estonian euro coins entered circulation on 1 January 2011. Estonia was the fifth of ten states that joined the EU in 2004, and the first ex-Soviet republic to join theeurozone. Of the ten new member states, Estonia was the first to unveil its design. It originally planned to adopt the euro on 1 January 2007; however, it did not formally apply whenSlovenia did, and officially changed its target date to 1 January 2008, and later, to 1 January 2011.[95] On 12 May 2010 theEuropean Commission announced that Estonia had met all criteria to join the eurozone.[96] On 8 June 2010, the EU finance ministers agreed that Estonia would be able to join the euro on 1 January 2011.[97] On 13 July 2010, Estonia received the final approval from the ECOFIN to adopt the euro as from 1 January 2011. On the same date the exchange rate at which thekroon would be exchanged for the euro (€1 = 15.6466 krooni) was also announced. On 20 July 2010, mass production of Estonian euro coins began in theMint of Finland.[98]
Being a member of the eurozone, NATO and the European Union, Estonia is the most integrated in Western European organizations of allNordic states.[99]
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Estonia–Russia relations remain tense. According to theEstonian Internal Security Service,Russian influence operations in Estonia form a complex system of financial, political, economic and espionage activities in theRepublic of Estonia for the purposes of influencing Estonia's political and economic decisions in ways considered favourable to theRussian Federation and conducted under the sphere-of-influence doctrine known asnear abroad.[citation needed] According to the Centre for Geopolitical Studies, the Russian information campaign, which the centre characterises as a "real mud-throwing" exercise, had provoked a split in Estonian society amongst Russian speakers, inciting some to riot over the relocation of theBronze Soldier of Tallinn, acenotaph commemorating the soldiers killed inWorld War II.[100] Estonia regarded the2007 cyberattacks on Estonia as an information operation intended to influence the decisions and actions of the Estonian government. While Russia denied any direct involvement in the attacks, hostile rhetoric in the media from the political elite influenced people to attack.[101] Following the 2007 cyber-attacks, theNATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCDCOE) was established in Tallinn.[102]
In August 2011, PresidentToomas Hendrik Ilves was re-elected in a vote in parliament for the second five-year term.[103] Center-rightReform Party was the biggest party in 2011 and 2015 parliamentary elections.[104] Estonian prime ministerAndrus Ansip resigned in March 2014, after nine years in office since 2005. He wanted his successor to lead the Reform Party into2015 elections.[105] In April 2014,Taavi Rõivas of the Reform party became new prime minister.[106] In October 2016, Estonia's parliament electedKersti Kaljulaid as the new president of Estonia. The role of president is a largely ceremonial.[107] In November 2016, chairman of theCentre PartyJüri Ratas became the new prime minister of Estonia, after Prime Minister Taavi Rõivas had lost a parliamentary vote on confidence.[108]
In March 2019, Estonian parliamentaryelection the center-right opposition party Reform won the elections and ruling Centre was the second. Far-rightConservative People's Party of Estonia (EKRE) came third.[109] After the election prime minister Ratas formed a new three-party coalition government with far-right EKRE and rightwingIsamaa[110]In January 2021, prime minister Jüri Ratas resigned over a corruption scandal in his Centre Party.[111] The leader of Reform partyKaja Kallas formed a new two-party coalition government between the Reform and Center parties. She was the first female prime minister of Estonia. Her fatherSiim Kallas was the founder of the Reform party and he was prime minister of Estonia in 2002–2003.[112][113]
After the formation of the new government in 2021, Estonia was the only country in the world that was led by elected women as the head of state and as the head of government: both the president, Kersti Kaljulaid, and prime minister, Kaja Kallas, were female.[114]In the cabinet of Kaja Kallas there were also several women in other key positions, both foreign minister and finance minister were female.[115] Mr.Alar Karis was sworn in as Estonia's sixth President on 11 October 2021.[116]
In July 2022, Prime Minister Kaja Kallas formed a new three-party coalition by her liberal Reform Party, the Social Democrats and the conservative Isamaa party. Her previous government had lost its parliamentary majority after the center-left Center Party left the coalition.[117]
In March 2023, the Reform party, led by Prime Minister Kaja Kallas, won the parliamentaryelection, taking 31,4% of the vote. Far-right Conservative People's Party came second with 16,1 % and the third was the Centre Party with 15% of the vote.[118] In April 2023, Kallas formed her third government, which included in addition to Reform Party, also the liberalEstonia 200 and theSocial Democratic (SDE) parties.[119]
In July 2024,Kristen Michal became Estonia's new prime minister to succeed Kaja Kallas, who resigned as prime minister on July 15 to become the European Union's newHigh Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.[120]
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