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In the Iron Age,Essex was home to theTrinovantes. In AD 43 theRoman conquest of Britain sawRoman control established over Essex, with the centre of Roman power in Britain being, for a time,Colchester. TheBoudiccan revolt saw Colchester razed, but it was rebuilt.

Following the collapse of Roman authority, Essex was settled bySaxons, and in the 6th century thekingdom of the East Saxons, from which Essex gets its name, emerged. The early East Saxons werepagan, but were converted toChristianity byCedd, who is now the county's patron saint, in 653. Essex was frequently under the overlordship of other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, and by the late 9th century had been absorbed by the kingdom ofWessex. In the mid 9th century Essex was conquered byScandinavian invaders, and became part of theDanelaw, before being reconquered by Wessex in the early 10th century, and becoming part of the emergent kingdom ofEngland. Colchester andMaldon established themselves as Essex's principal towns by the end of this period.

Essex has been part of England ever since, and has played a role in events such as thePeasant's Revolt of 1381, theWars of the Roses and theWars of the Three Kingdoms. Throughout the medieval era, Essex was one of the most densely-populated and prosperous parts of England, in no small part thanks to thewool trade in which it was heavily involved.Chelmsford established itself as thecounty town, whileHarwich emerged as a major port and naval base. Overseas, Essex people made major contributions to thecolonisation of the Americas.

In the industrial era, the introduction of the railway saw the rise of several seaside resort towns throughout Essex, most notablySouthend-on-Sea andClacton-on-Sea. Meanwhile, the expansion ofLondon saw parts of south-west Essex subsumed byGreater London, which would only become official with theLondon Government Act 1963.

TheSecond World War saw much military activity in Essex, with fighter airbases in the south of the country taking part in theBattle of Britain, and bomber airbases in the north contributing to thebombing of Germany. After the war, new towns were established atBasildon andHarlow, and Essex's economy increasingly became dependant on theLondon commute. The decline of seaside resorts across Britain hit Essex particularly hard, impoverishing areas such asJaywick.

In the Iron Age, Essex and parts of southern Suffolk were controlled by the localTrinovantes tribe. Their production of their own coinage marks them out as one of the more advanced tribes on the island, this advantage (in common with other tribes in the south-east) is probably due to theBelgic element within their elite. Their capital was theoppidum (a type of town) of Camulodunon (present-dayColchester), which had its own mint. The tribe were in extended conflict with their western neighbours, theCatuvellauni, and steadily lost ground. By AD 10 they had come under the complete control of the Catuvellauni, who took Colchester as their own capital.^[1]

Reigning from Camulodunon,Cunobelin was the most powerful of the Iron Age kings in Briton, and indeed was sometimes described in Roman sources as 'king of the Britons.' While open to Roman influence, Cunobelin seems to have retained a significant degree of independence.^[2]

Cunobelin's death in c. 40-43 provoked a succession crisis, in which his sonCaractacus initially came out on top. The disputed succession, and the exile of Cunobelin's sonArminius, provided the Roman emperorClaudius with a pretext to invade Britain. TheRoman invasion began in 43, with four legions supported by auxiliaries landing unopposed inKent. From there, the Romans advanced towards theThames, defeating the British at an unknown river-crossing, and again on the banks of the Thames. At the Thames, the Romans paused and awaited the arrival of Claudius, who personally lead the advance on, and capture of, Camulodunon.^[3]

Claudius held a review of his invasion force onLexden Heath where the army formally proclaimed himImperator. The invasion force that assembled before him included fourlegions, mounted auxiliaries and an elephant corps – a force of around 30,000 men.^[4] At Camulodunon, the kings of eleven British tribes surrendered to Claudius, though not Caractacus, who would later lead the resistance against Roman rule in western Britain.^[3][5]

A legionary fortress was built in Camulodunon in c. 43, to be followed in c. 49 by the establishment of a veteran colony there, known formally as 'Colonia Claudia Victricensis,' but more often as Camulodunum.^[6] It was initially the capital and most important city in Roman Britain, and in it was constructeda temple to the God-Emperor Claudius - the largest building of its kind inRoman Britain.^[7][8]

The establishment of the Colonia is thought to have involved extensive appropriation of land from local people. This, and other grievances, led to the Trinovantes joining their northern neighbours, theIceni, in theBoudiccan revolt.^[9] The rebels entered the city, and after a Roman last stand at the temple of Claudius, razed it, massacring many thousands. A Roman force attempting to relieve Colchester was destroyed in pitched battle.^[10] The rebels then proceeded to sackLondinium (London) andVerulamium (St Albans), before being defeated in battle. Contemporary sources claim revolt may have killed as many as 80,000 people. The Romans are likely to have ravaged the lands of the rebel tribes, so Essex will have suffered greatly.^[11]

Camulodunum was rebuilt after the revolt, though it is unclear if it was ever again capital, or if that role had passed to Londinium; Tacitus is ambiguous on the subject in c. 60. The city was home to the only Roman circus for chariot racing in Britain, a theatre opposite the Temple of Claudius, and historians have speculated anamphitheatre may also have been built there.^[12]

Throughout this, the Trinovantes' identity persisted. Roman provinces were divided intocivitas for local government purposes – with a civitas for the Trinovantes strongly implied byPtolemy.^[13] Christianity is thought to have been flourishing among the Trinovantes in the fourth century, indications include the remains of a probable church at Colchester,^[14] the church dates from sometime after 320, shortly after theConstantine the Greatgranted freedom of worship to Christians in 313. Other archaeological evidence include achi-rho symbol etched on a tile at a site inWickford, and a gold ring inscribed with a chi-rho monogram found atBrentwood.^[15]

The late Roman period, and the period shortly after, was the setting for theKing Cole legends based aroundColchester.^[16] One version of the legend concernsSt Helena, the mother ofConstantine the Great. The legend makes her the daughter of Coel, Duke of the Britons (King Cole) and in it she gives birth to Constantine in Colchester. This, andrelated legends, are at variance with biographical details as they are now known, but it is likely that Constantine, and his father,Constantius spent time in Colchester during their years in Britain.^[17] The presence of St Helena in the country is less certain.

From the early third century, Britain was increasingly subject toSaxon raids against coastal areas, including Essex. To protect against this threat, a series of forts were built along the coast, known as theSaxon Shore; one such fort was built in the late third century atOthona (presentBradwell-on-Sea).^[18]

Roman authority in Britain entered a steep decline in the middle of the fourth century, culminating in the province's rejection ofConstantine III in 409, following his withdrawal of troops from the province in 407. Outside of the Empire, the governing apparatus of Britain rapidly collapsed, ushering in a period of relative anarchy.^[19] Urban sites including Camulodunum were mostly abandoned, though there is some evidence of Saxon settlers among the ruins from early in the 5th century.^[20]

The first Saxons to settle in Essex were likely mercenaries, contracted by the Romano-British to garrison the Saxon Shore fortifications that protected the east coast against sea-borne raiders. Late Roman military belt sets, dating to the early 5th century, have been discovered in Essex, concentrated in coastal areas, including those with known military associations such as Colchester and Othona.^[21]

This accords with the earliest written account of post-Roman Britain, that ofGildas, which suggests the Anglo-Saxons first came to Britain as mercenaries, before turning on the Roman-British, and claiming much of the country for their own.^[22] The next written account comes fromBede in c. 731. Bede describes three principal groups - the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes - colonising England. The Saxon area he divides into the East, South (Sussex), and West Saxons (Wessex).^[23] It is from theOld English term for East Saxons,Ēastseaxe, that the name Essex derives. Archaeological evidence - primarily grave goods and burial practices - shows Essex as a region influenced both by 'Saxon' and 'Anglian' material culture, rather than conforming strongly to a Saxon identity.^[24]

The exact process by which Germanic, Anglo-Saxon identity, culture, and language became so widespread in England remains a subject of intense scholarly debate. The traditional view has been that there was large-scale migration from continental Europe to England. This is, however, contradicted by genetic evidence that suggests migration took place on a much smaller scale. Recent scholarship proposes lower levels and migration, alongside a cultural shift whereby Romano-British communities adopted the culture of an Anglo-Saxon elite, in order to gain "status, security, social opportunity and access to wealth."^[25]

Thekingdom of the East Saxons begins to emerge in the 6th century. It is at this time that elite burials first appear in Essex's archaeological record, most of which featureKentish styles of dress and jewellery.^[26] Some sources give the first king of the East Saxons asÆescwine (or Erkenwine) in 527, whose name suggests a connection with Kent. More widely attested as first king, however, isSledd in 587. Again a Kentish connection is visible, as Sledd's wife Ricula was the sister of the Kentish kingÆthelberht.^[27] The early kings of the East Saxons were pagan and uniquely amongst the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms traced their lineage back toSeaxnēat, god of theSaxons, in addition toWoden. Thekings of Essex are notable for their S-nomenclature, nearly all of them begin with the letter S.^[28]

The East Saxon kingdom extended beyond the boundaries of present-day Essex, intoMiddlesex and parts of easternHertfordshire. Middlesex, at least, was likely viewed as a separate province to Essex proper, and may at times have been provided its 'own' king from the East Saxon royal family. It is also possible that the East Saxon kingdom may once have encompassedSurrey, whose name derives from 'Southern District', though there is limited evidence for this.^[29]

While Christianity had been introduced to Essex in Roman times, by the late 6th century, the East Saxons and their kings were pagans. TheGregorian mission arrived in neighbouring Kent in 597 to begin the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. The first sign of Christianity among the East Saxons is the presence of Christian grave goods at thePrittlewell royal burial, dated to around 600. In 604, the Gregorian mission reached Essex. KingSæbert was baptised, aBishop of London (Mellitus) was consecrated, andSt Paul's Cathedral was founded in London. The Christianisation of the kings of Essex was short-lived, however, as on Sæbert's death in 616 his sons renounced Christianity and drove out Mellitus.^[30][31]

The kingdom re-converted around 653, afterSt Cedd, a monk fromLindisfarne and now the patron saint of Essex, convertedSigeberht II around 653, and was appointed Bishop of the East Saxons; which appears to have been a separate position from Bishop of London.^[30] Around this time theChapel of St Peter-on-the-Wall was built inBradwell-on-Sea, which ranks among the oldest English churches still in use today.^[32][33] The last pagan king of Essex wasSighere, anapostate who was joint-king alongside his Christian cousinSæbbi; Sæbbi outlived his cousin, and Christianity fully took hold in Essex.^[34]

During Sæbbi's reign, the East Saxon kingdom conquered Kent and brought it under their overlordship, with Sæbbi's sonSwæfheard ruling the province as king, but subordinate to his father in Essex. This influence, however, seems to have come to an end by 694.^[28] From this point onwards, Essex fell increasingly under the overlordship of foreign kings, primarily of Mercia, withCoenwulf reducing the kings of Essex toealdorman status. Furthermore, the Mercian kings separated Essex's territories in Hertfordshire and Middlesex from the core territory of Essex.^[29] In AD 824,Ecgberht, the King of the Wessex and grandfather ofAlfred the Great, defeated the Mercians at theBattle of Ellandun in Wiltshire, fundamentally changing the balance of power in southern England. The small kingdoms of Essex,Sussex,Surrey andKent were subsequently absorbed into Wessex.^[35] From this time onwards, Essex was often ruled - along with the other smaller kingdoms of eastern England - by a son of the king of Wessex.^[36]

The coming of theGreat Heathen Army in 865 saw Essex among the English counties which were conquered by the pagan Norse kingGuthrum, and became part of theDanelaw. Following Alfred the Great's victory at theBattle of Edington in 878, Guthrum converted to Christianity, and a border was drawn between his realm and Alfred's along theRiver Lea.^[37] The extent of Scandinavian control in Essex is disputed, with linguistic and archaeological evidence of such limited to the north-east of the county.^[38]

In 894 Alfred's sonEdward campaigned into Essex and defeated a Viking army at theBattle of Benfleet, but did not advance further.^[39] He returned as king of Wessex in 917, and brought the country back under Wessex's control; his sonÆthelstan was to become the first king of the English.^[40] The later Anglo-Saxon period shows two further major battles fought with the Norse in Essex; theBattle of Maldon in 991,^[41] and theBattle of Assandun (probably at eitherAshingdon orAshdon) in 1016.^[42]

By the end of the Anglo-Saxon period, the county was divided into theHundreds of Essex, which would persist with little alteration for a millennium. This time period also saw Colchester andMaldon establish themselves as the principal towns of Essex, with Colchester the larger of the two.^[43]

Having conquered England,William the Conqueror initially based himself atBarking Abbey, an already ancient nunnery, for several months while a secure base, which eventually became theTower of London could be established in the city. While at Barking William received the submission of some of England's leading nobles. The invaders established a number of castles in the county, to help protect the new elites in a hostile country. There were castles atColchester,Castle Hedingham,Rayleigh,Pleshey and elsewhere.Hadleigh Castle was developed much later, in the thirteenth century.

With the Norman conquest came the introduction of themanorial system, by which Norman-style 'manors' replaced the Anglo-Saxonhide as the chief method by which landholding was organised. A number of William's supporters were rewarded with extensive estates throughout Essex, includingAubrey de Vere, who hadHedingham Castle built, andGeoffrey de Mandeville, whosegrandson would become the firstEarl of Essex.^[44][45]After the arrival of theNormans, theForest of Essex was established as aroyal forest, however, at that time, the term^[46] was a legal term. There was a weak correlation between the area covered by theForest of Essex (the large majority of the county) and the much smaller area covered by woodland. An analysis ofDomesday returns for Essex has shown that theForest of Essex was mostly farmland, and that the county as a whole was 20% wooded in 1086.^[47]

Chelmsford began growing into a major market town following the Norman conquest, with a bridge over theRiver Can built byMaurice, Bishop of London in c. 1100, and the town'sroyal charter granted in 1199.^[48]

After that point population growth caused the proportion of woodland to fall steadily until the arrival of theBlack Death, in 1348, killed between a third and a half of England's population, leading to a long term stabilisation of the extent of woodland. Similarly, various pressures led to areas being removed from the legalForest of Essex and it ceased to exist as a legal entity after 1327,^[49] and after that timeForest Law applied to smaller areas: the forests ofWrittle (nearChelmsford), long lost Kingswood (near Colchester),^[47]Hatfield, andWaltham Forest.

Waltham Forest had covered parts of theHundreds ofWaltham, Becontree and Ongar. It also included the physical woodland areas subsequently legally afforested (designated as a legal forest) and known asEpping Forest andHainault Forest.^[50]

The Black Death significantly reduced England's population, leading to a change in the balance of power between the working population on one hand, and their masters and employers on the other. Over a period of several decades, national government brought in legislation to reverse the situation, but it was only partially successful and led to simmering resentment.

By 1381, England's economic situation was very poor due to thewar with France, so a newPoll Tax was levied with commissioners being sent round the country to interrogate local officials in an attempt to ensure tax evasion was reduced and more money extracted. This was hugely unpopular and thePeasants' Revolt broke out inBrentwood on 1 June 1381. The revolt was partly inspired by the egalitarian preaching of the radical Essex priestJohn Ball.

Several thousand Essex rebels gathered atBocking on 4 June, and then divided. Some heading toSuffolk to raise rebellion there, with the rest heading to London, some directly – viaBow Bridge and others may have gone via Kent. A large force of Kentish rebels underWat Tyler, who may himself have been from Essex, also advanced on London while revolt also spread to a number of other parts of the country.

The rebels gained access to the walledCity of London and gained control of theTower of London. They carried out extensive looting in the capital and executed a number of their enemies, but the revolt began to dissipate after the events atWest Smithfield on 15 June, when the Mayor of London,William Walworth, killed the rebel leader Wat Tyler. The rebels prepared to fire arrows at the royal party but the 15 year oldKing Richard II rode toward the crowd and spoke to them, defusing the situation, in part by making a series of promises he did not subsequently keep.^[51]

Having bought himself time, Richard was able to receive reinforcements and then crush the rebellion in Essex and elsewhere. His forces defeated rebels in battle atBillericay on 28 June, and there were mass executions including hangings and disembowellings at Chelmsford and Colchester.^[52]

In 1471, during theWars of the Roses a force of around 2,000 Essex supporters of theLancastrian cause crossedBow Bridge to join with 3,000 Kentish Lancastrian supporters under theBastard of Fauconberg.

The Essex men joined with their allies in attempting to stormAldgate andBishopsgate during an assault known as theSiege of London. The Lancastrians were defeated, and the Essex contingent retreated back over theLea with heavy losses.^[53]

In 1588Tilbury Fort was chosen as the focal point of the English defences againstKing Philip II'sSpanish Armada, and the large veteran army he had ordered to invade England. The English believed that the Spanish would land near the Fort,^[54] soQueen Elizabeth's small and relatively poorly trained forces gathered at Tilbury, where the Queen made herfamous speech to the troops.

I know I have the body of a weak, feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn thatParma orSpain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.

In the event, the Spanish fleet was defeated at sea and scattered, and so no stand at Tilbury was required.

People from Essex were heavily involved in thecolonisation of the Americas. TheMayflower, which carried the first settlers toNew England, was aHarwich ship. Five of America's presidents (George Washington,John Adams,John Quincy Adams,George H. W. Bush, andGeorge W. Bush) can trace their ancestry to Essex.^[55]

Essex, London and the eastern counties backed Parliament in theEnglish Civil War, but by 1648, this loyalty was stretched. In June 1648 a force of 500 Kentish Royalists landed near theIsle of Dogs, linked up with a small Royalist cavalry force from Essex, fought abattle with local parliamentarians at Bow Bridge, then crossed the River Lea into Essex.

The combined force, bolstered by extra forces, marched towards Royalist held Colchester, but a Parliamentarian force caught up with them just as they were about to enter the city's medieval walls, and a bitter battle was fought but the Royalists were able to retire to the security of the walls. TheSiege of Colchester followed, but ten weeks' starvation and news of Royalist defeats elsewhere led the Royalists to surrender.^[56]

Following therestoration of the monarchy in 1660,Arthur Capell - who as a child had been a hostage during the Siege of Colchester - was named Earl of Essex, a title his descendants hold to this day.

Much of the development of the county was caused by the railway. By 1843 theEastern Counties Railway had connectedBishopsgate station in London withBrentwood andColchester. In 1856, they opened a branch to Loughton (later extended to Ongar) and by 1884 theLondon, Tilbury and Southend Railway had connectedFenchurch Street railway station in theCity of London toGrays,Tilbury,Southend-on-Sea andShoeburyness. Some of the railways were built primarily to transport goods but some (e.g. the Loughton branch) were to cater for commuter traffic; they unintentionally created the holiday resorts of Southend,Clacton andFrinton-on-Sea^{[citation needed]}.

County councils were created in England in 1889. Essex County Council was based inChelmsford, although it met in London until 1938. Its control did not cover the entire county. The London suburb ofWest Ham and laterEast Ham and the resort ofSouthend-on-Sea becamecounty boroughs independent of county council control.

TheHarwich Force - based, as the name suggests, in Harwich - played an important role in theNorth Sea theatre of theFirst World War.^[57] On land, theEssex Regiment fought on theWestern Front, including at theBattle of the Somme;^[58] atGallipoli; and in theSenussi andSinai and Palestine campaigns.^[59]

During theSecond World War, Essex played a key role in theBattle of Britain, playing host to a number ofRAF Fighter Command airfields in11 Group, most notably three sector airfields atHornchurch,North Weald, andDebden.^[60] Later in the war a series of new airfields were built across northern Essex, for use byRAF Bomber Command and theUnited States Army Air Forces in theCombined Bomber Offensive againstGerman-occupied Europe. Important wartime producers includedMarconi electrical systems and Hoffman ballbearings in Chelmsford, andPaxman engines in Colchester, whileSouthend Pier served as a mustering point for convoys.

Much of Essex is protected from development near to its boundary with Greater London and forms part of theMetropolitan Green Belt. In 1949 the new towns ofHarlow andBasildon were created. These developments were intended to address the chronic housing shortage in London but were not intended to becomedormitory towns, rather it was hoped the towns would form an economy independent of the capital. The railway station at Basildon, with a direct connection to the city, was not opened until 1974 after pressure from residents.

The proximity of London and its economic magnetism has caused many places in Essex to become desirable places for workers in the City of London to live. As London grew in the east places such asBarking andRomford were given greater autonomy and created asmunicipal boroughs.

Finally in 1965 under theLondon Government Act 1963 theCounty Borough of West Ham and theCounty Borough of East Ham were abolished and their area transferred to Greater London to form theLondon Borough of Newham.

Also at this time theMunicipal Borough of Ilford and theMunicipal Borough of Wanstead and Woodford were abolished and their area, plus part of the area ofChigwell Urban District (but not including Chigwell itself), were transferred to Greater London to form theLondon Borough of Redbridge. TheMunicipal Borough of Romford andHornchurch Urban District were abolished and their area transferred to Greater London to form theLondon Borough of Havering.

TheMunicipal Borough of Leyton, theMunicipal Borough of Chingford and theMunicipal Borough of Walthamstow were abolished and their area transferred to Greater London to form theLondon Borough of Waltham Forest. TheMunicipal Borough of Barking and theMunicipal Borough of Dagenham were abolished and their area transferred to Greater London to form the London Borough of Barking, renamedLondon Borough of Barking and Dagenham on 1 January 1980.

Essex became part of the East of England Government Office Region in 1994 and was statistically counted as part of that region from 1999, having previously been part of the South East England region.

In 1998 the boroughs ofThurrock andSouthend-on-Sea were givenunitary authority status and ceased to be under county council control. They remain part of theceremonial county.

The importance of theAnglo-Saxon culture in Essex was only emphasized by the rich burial discovered atPrittlewell in 2003,^[61] but the important Anglo-Saxon remains in Essex are mostly churches. St. Peter's straddles the wall of a Roman seafort atBradwell (Othona), and is one of the early Anglo-Saxon, "Kentish" series of churches made famous by its documentation byBede. Later Anglo-Saxon work may be seen in an important church tower at Holy Trinity,Colchester, an intact church atHadstock, and elsewhere. AtGreensted the walls of the nave are made of halved logs; although still the oldest church timber known in England, it is now thought to be earlyNorman.

Being a relatively stone-less County, it is unsurprising that some of the earliest examples of the mediaeval revival of brick-making can be found in Essex;Layer Marney Tower,Ingatestone Hall, and numerous parish churches exhibit the brickmakers' and bricklayers' skills in Essex. A two-volumetypology of bricks, based entirely on Essex examples, has been published. Similarly, spectacular early-mediaeval timber construction is to be found in Essex, with perhaps the two Templars' barns atCressing Temple being pre-eminent in the whole of England. There is a completetree-ring dating series for Essex timber, much due to the work of Dr. Tyers at the University of Sheffield.

Mediaeval"gothic" architecture in timber, brick, rubble, and stone is to be found all over Essex. These range from the large churches atChelmsford,Saffron Walden andThaxted, to the little gem atTilty. The ruinedabbeys, however, such as the two in Colchester and that atBarking, are disappointing in comparison to those that can be found in other counties^{[citation needed]}; Waltham is the exception^{[citation needed]}.

While the truncated remnant ofWaltham Abbey was considered as a potential cathedral, elevation of the large parish church at Chelmsford was eventually preferred because of its location at the centre of the new diocese of Essex c.1908. Waltham Abbey remains the county's most impressive piece of mediaeval architecture.

Quite apart from important towns like Colchester or Chelmsford, many smaller places in Essex exhibit continuity from ancient times. Perhaps the most amusing is the Anglo-Saxon church atRivenhall, just north of Witham. A nearby, ruinedRoman villa probably served as a source for its building materials, and the age of this church was underestimated byPevsner by about a thousand years.

The villages ofWanstead andWoodford saw the French family setting up a brick making works adjacent to the road from Chelmsford to London, now known as Chigwell Road. This industry closed in 1952.

• Pevsner (the "Buildings of England" series, Penguin) is the best general introduction to the county's architecture. In the new [when?]editions, 'London over the border' will now [when?] appear with London: East, instead of with the rest of the county, as formerly.

Hidden Heritage – Discovering Ancient Essex, by Terry Johnsonby Terry Johnson Whilst major sites such as Stonehenge and Avebury are well known, few people realise how rich in ancient sites are other areas of Britain. Terry first examines features of the landscape and unusual church carvings in general, then gives a detailed listing of interesting sites in Essex with associated legends and folklore, in addition to examining possible leys.ISBN 1898307 709

• History of Essex
• History of England by county

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