Thehistory of East Africa has been divided into its prehistory, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and the post-colonial period, in which the current nations were formed.East Africa is the eastern region ofAfrica, bordered byNorth Africa,Central Africa,Southern Africa, theIndian Ocean, and theSahara Desert. Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary East African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.
The area located at the south of the desert is asteppe, a semi-arid region, called theSahel. It is the ecoclimatic andbiogeographic zone oftransition in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and theSudanian Savanna to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt oftropical savanna that spans theAfrican continent, from the Atlantic Ocean coast in theWest Sudanian savanna to theEthiopian Highlands in theEast Sudanian savanna.
In 15,000 BP, theWest African Monsoon transformed the landscape ofAfrica and began theGreen Sahara period; greater rainfall during the summer season resulted in the growth of humid conditions (e.g.,lakes,wetlands) and the savanna (e.g.,grassland,shrubland) inNorth Africa.[1] Between 5500 BP and 4000 BP, the Green Sahara period ended.[1]
In 78,300 BP, amid theMiddle Stone Age, a two and half to three year old human child wasburied atPanga ya Saidi, inKenya.[2]
In 13,000 BP,Nubians, who were found to be morphologically different from newer Nubian populations and morphologically similar toSub-Saharan Africans (e.g.,Kerma, modernEastern Africans, modernWestern Africans), resided intropicalJebel Sahaba.[3]
Between 8000 BP and 2000 BP,Saharan herders migrated intoEastern Africa, and brought along with them theirmonumental Saharan burial traditions.[4]
Amid theHolocene, around 7100 BP, six individuals were buried.[5]
In the uplands ofNakfa, there is painted rock art (e.g.,petroglyphs) in Karora depicting symbolic representations, men, and animals (e.g.,horses,camels,antelopes,goats,sheep,cattle), which has been dated to the 2nd millennium BCE.[6][7]
Archaeometallurgicalscientific knowledge and technological development originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located inWest Africa,Central Africa, andEast Africa; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.[8] The earliest records of bloomery-type furnaces inEast Africa are discoveries of smelted iron and carbon inNubia that date back between the 7th and 6th centuries BC,[9][10][11] particularly inMeroe where there are known to have been ancient bloomeries that produced metal tools for the Nubians and Kushites and produced surplus for their economy.
There is also evidence thatcarbon steel was made in WesternTanzania by the ancestors of theHaya people as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.[12][13][14][15][16][17]
FromWest Africa,Bantu-speaking peoples migrated, along with their ceramics, into the other areas ofSub-Saharan Africa.[18] The Kalundu ceramic type may have spread intoSoutheastern Africa.[18] Additionally, theEastern AfricanUrewe ceramic type ofLake Victoria may have spread, via African shores near theIndian Ocean, as the Kwale ceramic type, and spread, via Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi, as the Nkope ceramic type.[18]
Though some may have been created later, the earlier red finger-painted rock art may have been created between 6000 BP and 1800 BP, to the south of Kei River and Orange River byKhoisan hunter-gatherer-herders, in Malawi and Zambia by considerablydark-skinned, occasionally bearded, bow-and-arrow-wielding Akafula hunter-gatherers who resided in Malawi until the 19th century CE, and in Transvaal by theVhangona people.[19]
Bantu-speaking farmers, or theirProto-Bantu progenitors, created the later white finger-paintedrock art in some areas of Tanzania, Malawi, Angola, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, as well as in the northern regions of Mozambique, Botswana, and Transvaal.[19] The Transvaal (e.g.,Soutpansberg,Waterberg) rock art was specifically created bySotho-speakers (e.g.,Birwa, Koni,Tlokwa) andVenda people.[19] Concentric circles, stylized humans, stylized animals, ox-wagons, saurian figures, Depictions of crocodiles and snakes were included in the white finger-painted rock art tradition, both of which were associated with rainmaking and, crocodiles in particular, were also associated with fertility.[19] The white finger-painted rock art may have been created for reasons relating to initiation rites and puberty rituals.[19] Depictions from the rock art tradition of Bantu-speaking farmers have been found on divination-related items (e.g., drums, initiation figurines, initiation masks); fertility terracotta masks from Transvaal have been dated to the 1st millennium CE.[19] Along withIron Age archaeological sites from the 1st millennium CE, this indicates that white finger-painted rock art tradition may have been spanned from the Early Iron Age to the Later Iron Age.[19]
TheKerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia" (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.[20] The city-state ofKerma emerged as the dominant political force, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourthcataracts, an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" and over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.[21] It emerged as the earliest kingdom inSub-Saharan Africa, and persisted from 2500 BCE to 1500 BCE.[22]
The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt was organized byPharaohSahure of theFifth Dynasty (25th century BCE), returning with cargoes ofantyue and Puntites. However,gold from Punt is recorded as having been inEgypt as early as the time of PharaohKhufu of theFourth Dynasty.[23]
Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in theSixth,Eleventh,Twelfth andEighteenth dynasties of Egypt. In the Twelfth Dynasty, trade with Punt was celebrated in popular literature in theTale of the Shipwrecked Sailor.
In the reign ofMentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BCE), an officer namedHannu organized one or more voyages to Punt, but it is uncertain whether he personally traveled on these expeditions.[24] Trading missions of the 12th dynasty pharaohsSenusret I,Amenemhat II andAmenemhat IV had also successfully navigated their way to and from the mysterious land of Punt.[25][26]
Given the presence of a large temple complex, the capital of Dʿmt may have been present dayYeha, inTigray Region,Ethiopia.[28] At Yeha, the temple to the godIlmuqah is still standing.[29]
Somewhat based on the basis ofCarlo Conti Rossini's theories and prolific work onEthiopian history, Aksum is thought by some to have started out as a Sabaean colony, founded by thesemiticSabaeans, also evidenced by the semitic language domination over theoromo language, part of theCushitic branch of theAfro-Asiatic language phylum. Others believe that the development of it was mostly independent. Proponents of the latter believe that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance withD' mt or some other "proto-Aksumite" state. Evidence suggests that semitic-speaking Aksumites semiticized theAgaw people, who, before that, most likely took influence from foreign Afroasiatic cultures in their development as a people group, suggested by theCushitic language they speak. They had also already established an agricultural community in the area before any known arrival of the Sabaeans, to which is affiliated with the spread of theAfro-Asiatic language phylum.[30][a][31]
In the pre-Swahili period, the region was occupied by smaller societies whose main socioeconomic activities were pastoralism, fishing, and mixed farming.[32] Early on, those living on the Swahili coast prospered because ofagriculture helped by regular yearly rainfall andanimal husbandry.[33] The shallow coast was important as it provided seafood.[33] Starting in the early 1st millennium CE, trade was crucial.[33][34] Submerged river estuaries created natural harbors as well as the yearly monsoon winds helped trade.[33][34] Later in the 1st millennium CE there was a huge migration ofBantu-speaking peoples.[33] The communities settling along the coast shared archaeological and linguistic features with those from the interior of the continent. Archeological data has revealed the use of Kwale and Urewe ceramics both along the coast and within the interior parts, showing that the regions had a shared lifeway in the Late Stone and Early Iron Ages.[32]
Harla Kingdom[35] was a 6th century CEHarla state centered around present day easternEthiopia.[36][37] The kingdom had trading relations with theAyyubid andTang dynasties.[38] It also established its own currency and calendar.[39]
The Kingdom of Bazin was an early medievalkingdom centered inNortheast Africa. According toAl-Yaqubi, it was one of sixBeja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located betweenAswan andMassawa.[40]
The beginning of a conversion process of theKingdom of Axum to Christianity is thought to have occurred with the arrival of two Syrian brothersFrumentius and Aedesius, sometime in the reign ofEzana.[41] The conversion, bringing with it Hebraizing elements, was partial, initially was limited to the court and probably affected only the caravan trading route areas between Axum andAdulis. Neither Judaizing nor Christianizing local populations would have fitted into what we later define as normative Judaism or Christianity, but were syncretic mixtures of local faiths and new beliefs from forebears of these respective religions.[42] Later legend speaks of a revolt by Jews taking place at this period but there is no evidence that directly support this story, and its historicity is considered unlikely.[43] A strong possibility exists that the ChristianKaleb of Axum, who had dispatched military contingents to fight against the JudaizingDhu Nuwas of the Arabian peninsulakingdom of Himyar banished opponents to theSimien Mountains, which later emerged as a Beta Israel stronghold. Nothing in the historical record from the 6th century CE to the 13th century CE, however, has allowed scholars to make anything more than very tentative hypotheses concerning the Jewish communities of that time. Legends surrounding a Jewish queen called Judith (Gudit) have been dismissed byEthiopian specialists likeEdward Ullendorff as without foundation in any historical facts.[43]
The Kingdom of Belgin, also known as the Kingdom of Baqulin, was an early medievalkingdom centered inNortheast Africa. According toAl-Yaqubi, it was one of sixBeja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located betweenAswan andMassawa.[40]
The Kingdom of Jarin was an early medievalkingdom centered inNortheast Africa. According toAl-Yaqubi, it was one of sixBeja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located betweenAswan andMassawa.[40]
The Kingdom of Qita'a, also known as the Kingdom of Qata, was an early medievalkingdom centered inNortheast Africa. According toAl-Yaqubi, it was one of sixBeja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located betweenAswan andMassawa.[40]
The Kingdom of Nagash was an early medievalkingdom centered inNortheast Africa. According toAl-Yaqubi, it is one of sixBeja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located betweenAswan andMassawa.[40]
The Kingdom of Tankish was an early medievalkingdom centered inNortheast Africa. According toAl-Yaqubi, it was one of sixBeja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century CE. The kingdom's territory was located betweenAswan andMassawa.[40]
The Tunni, composed of five sub-clans (Da'farad, Dakhtira, Goygali, Hajuwa, and Waridi), were the latest to drive the Jiddu into the interior, where they established their own Sultanate inQoryoley. The Tunni made a treaty with the Jiddu so that Tunni settled on the west bank of the Shabelle and the Jiddu settled on the east bank. Both also agreed to resist foreign penetration, to allow only Seddah Saamood (the three foot-prints, which are the Tuni, the Jiddu, and the wild beasts).[44] However, they did accept the first Muslim migrants, the Hatimi fromYemen and the Amawi fromSyria, around the 10th century CE, for both religious and commercial reasons.Barawa founded by a Tunni saint called Aw-Al became the new capital for the Tunni Sultanate. The town prospered and became one of the major Islamic centers in theHorn, the Barawaani Ulama, attracting students from all over the region. Muslim scholars of that time, such asIbn Sa'id, wrote aboutBarawa as "an Islamic island on the Somali coast." Al-Idrisi also described the construction of the coral houses and noted that Barawa was full of both domestic and foreign commodities.[45]
Eventually, the Tunni people abandoned the pastoral lifestyle and established themselves largely as farmers on the rich arable land where they grew a variety of fruits and vegetables but they still continued to practice livestock grazing. They established a number of concentrated settlements on the interior such as Buulo, Golweyn, and Xaramka, Jilib, Jamaame, and their centerQoryooley.[46] The Tunni Somali clan inhabiting the cultivated Shebelle valley behind the coast produced foodstuffs for the coastal towns as well as acting as brokers for other Somali traders further inland.[47]
The Sultanate of Showa (Sultanate of Shewa) also known as Makhzumi Dynasty was aMuslimkingdom in present-dayEthiopia. Its capital Walale was situated in northernHararghe inHarla country.[48][49] Its territory extended possibly to some areas west of theAwash River.[50] The port ofZeila may have influenced the kingdom.[51] The rise of the Makhzumi state at the same time resulted in the decline of theKingdom of Axum.[52] Several engravings dating back to the 13th century CE showed the presence of the kingdom are found in Chelenqo, Bate, Harla nearDire Dawa and Munessa nearLake Langano.[53]
According tooral tradition in the area of theGreat Lakes of Africa (also known asBachwezi,Bacwezi, orChwezi empire, Empire of the moon) was ruled by a dynasty known as the Bachwezi (Chwezi), successors of theBatembuzi Dynasty.[54]
The story of Kilwa begins around 960 CE – 1000 CE.[55]
The Ethiopian Empire would emerge following the establishment of theSolomonic dynasty byYekuno Amlak in approximately 1270.[56]
Ifat first emerged when Umar ibn Dunya-huz, later to be known as SultanUmar Walasma, carved out his own kingdom and conquered theSultanate of Showa (located in the highlands of EasternShewa).[57][58][59] Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Walashma's military acts as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as EmperorYekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period.[60]
Hadiya was likely part of the domain of theSultanate of Showa and linked to theHarla[61] before the non-IslamicKingdom of Damot's invasion led bySidama.[62] A cluster of speakers labelled Hadiya-Sidama developed maintaining Islamic identity and later creating the Hadiya Sultanate.[63]
For many years Mogadishu functioned as the pre-eminent city in the Bilad al Barbar, or "Land of theBerbers", as medieval Arabic-speakers named the Somali coast.[64][65][66][67] Following his visit to the city, the 12th century CESyrian historianYaqut al-Hamawi (a former slave of Greek origin) wrote a global history of many places he visited including Mogadishu and called it the richest and most powerful city in the region and described it as an Islamic center on the Indian Ocean.[68][69]
In the early 13th century CE, Mogadishu along with other coastal and interior Somali cities in southern Somalia and eastern Abyissina came under theAjuran Sultanate control and experienced another Golden Age.[70]
Originally avassal state ofBunyoro,Buganda grew rapidly in power in the 18th century CE and the 19th century CE becoming the dominant kingdom in the region. Buganda started to expand in the 1840s CE, and used fleets of war canoes to establish "a kind of imperial supremacy" overLake Victoria and the surrounding regions. Subjugating weaker peoples for cheap labor, Buganda grew into a powerful "embryonic empire".[71] The first direct contact with Europeans was established in 1862 CE, when British explorersJohn Hanning Speke and Captain SirRichard Francis Burton entered Buganda and according to their reports, the kingdom was highly organized.[72]
The Ajuran Empire, also spelled Ajuuraan Empire,[73] and often simply as Ajuran,[74] was aSomaliempire in the medieval times in theHorn of Africa that dominated the trade in northernIndian Ocean. They belonged to theSomaliMuslimsultanate[75][76][77] that ruled over large parts of theHorn of Africa in theMiddle Ages. Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Empire successfully resisted anOromoinvasion from the west and aPortuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and theAjuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods ofSomali maritime enterprise were strengthened or re-established, and foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and coming from many kingdoms and empires inEast Asia,South Asia,Europe, theNear East,North Africa andEast Africa.[78]
The Kingdom of Kaffa was founded, c. 1390 CE, by Minjo, who according to oral tradition ousted the Mato dynasty of 32 kings. However, his informants told Amnon Orent, "no one remembers the name of a single one."[79]
Before the 19th century CE, it was believed that the Tutsis held military leadership power while the Hutus possessed healing power and agricultural skills. In this capacity, the Mwami's council of advisors (abiiru) was exclusively Hutu and held significant sway. By the mid-18th century CE, however, theabiiru had become increasingly marginalized.[80]
As the kings centralized their power and authority, they distributed land among individuals rather than allowing it to be passed down through lineage groups, of which many hereditary chiefs had been Hutu. Most of the chiefs appointed by the Mwamis were Tutsi.[81] The redistribution of land, enacted between 1860 CE and 1895 CE byKigeli IV Rwabugiri, resulted in an imposedpatronage system, under which appointed Tutsi chiefs demanded manual labor in return for the right of Hutus to occupy their land. This system left Hutus in aserf-like status with Tutsi chiefs as theirfeudal masters.[82][83]
Adal Kingdom (also Awdal, Adl, or Adel)[84] was centred aroundZeila, its capital.[85][86][87] It was established by the localSomali tribes in the early 9th century CE. Zeila attracted merchants from around the world, contributing to the wealth of the city. Zeila is an ancient city and it was one of the earliest cities in the world to embraceIslam.[88][84][89]
According to Shilluk legends, the kingdom was founded in 1490 CE. Its legendary first ruler ("Reth") was the hero known as Nyikang who claimed to be half-crocodile and possessed power over the rain.[90] Nyikang was the son of a king, Okwa, who ruled a country located "far south near a large lake". This may beLake Albert, where theAcholi live. After Okwa's death, Nyikang went to war with his brother Duwadh, the legitimate successor to the throne. Facing defeat, Nyikang left his homeland with his retinue and migrated northeast toWau (near theBahr el Ghazal, "river of gazelles" in Arabic). Here (known by the Shilluk as thePothe Thuro) Nyikang married the daughter of Dimo, the local magician. After a conflict with Dimo Nyikang migrated north (crossing the Bahr el Ghazal) to Acietagwok (a Shilluk village about 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the village of Tonga) around 1550 CE. Nyikang then traveled to Nyilual, an uninhabited region west of the present town ofMalakal.[91] In the end, legends claim that Nyikang vanished in a whirlwind in the middle of a battle.[90]
Banyankore trace their ancestors back to the Bairu and the Bahima subgroup.[92] The kingdom was abolished in 1967 CE by theUgandan government under presidentApollo Milton Obote.[92]
Christian Nubia, represented by the twomedieval kingdoms ofMakuria andAlodia, began to decline from the 12th century CE.[93] By 1365 CE, Makuria had virtually collapsed and was reduced to a petty kingdom restricted toLower Nubia, until finally disappearingc. 150 years later.[94] The fate of Alodia is less clear.[93] It has been suggested that it collapsed already as early as the 12th century or shortly after, as archaeology suggests that in this period,Soba ceased to be used as its capital.[95] By the 13th century CE, central Sudan seemed to have disintegrated into various petty states.[96] Between the 14th century CE and the 15th century CE Sudan was overran byBedouin tribes.[97] In the 15th century CE, one of these Bedouins, whomSudanese traditions refer to asAbdallah Jammah, is recorded to have created a tribal federation and to have subsequently destroyed what was left of Alodia. In the early 16th century CE, Abdallah's federation came under attack of an invader from the south, theFunj.[98] In 1504 CE, the Funj defeated Abdallah Jammah and founded the Funj sultanate.[99]
The date of the foundation of the Kingdom of Burundi is unknown but probably dates back to the 17th century CE when theTutsi ethnic group gained dominance over the largerethnic Hutu population of the region. UndermwamiNtare I (r. 1675 CE – 1705 CE), the kingdom expanded and annexed a number of surrounding polities.[100] Although ruled by themwami, the kingdom was extensively decentralised and local sub-rulers had wide independence. Before the arrival of European colonists, succession struggles were also common.[100]
The Kooki Kingdom was established at some point in time between 1696 CE and 1740 CE by the Mubito prince of Bwohe. Bwohe was a part of the Bunyoro-Kitara dynasty who with his followers broke away from the largerBunyoro-Kitara Kingdom and created his own. Bwohe died in either 1740 CE or 1750 CE.[101][102]
At the end of the 17th century CE, theAjuran Sultanate was on its decline and various vassals were breaking free or being absorbed by new Somali powers. One of these powers was theSilcis Sultanate, which began consolidating its rule over theAfgooye region.Ibrahim Adeer led the revolt against the Silcis ruler Umar Abrone and his oppressive daughter, Princess Fay.[103] After his victory over the Silcis, Ibrahim then proclaimed himselfSultan and subsequently founded theGobroon Dynasty.
The Geledi Sultanate was aRahanweyn Kingdom ruled by the nobleGeledi which controlled the entireJubba River region and extending to parts ofShebelle River and conducting a significant amount of trade in the region. The Geledi Sultanate had southern Arabians pay tribute to Geledi SultanAhmed Yusuf.[104]
In 1734 CE, theAfar leader Data Kadafo, head of the Mudayto clan, seized power and established theMudayto Dynasty.[105][106] This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period.[106] The primary symbol of the Sultan was a silverbaton, which was considered to have magical properties.[107] The influence of the sultanate extended into the Danakil lowlands of what is nowEritrea.[108]
The Majeerteen Sultanate was established, possibly around 1600s CE, bySomalis from theMajeerteenDarod clan.[109] It reached prominence during the 19th century CE, under the reign of the resourcefulBoqor (King)Osman Mahamuud.[110]
The modern Guleed dynasty of the Isaaq Sultanate was established in the middle of the 18th century CE by Sultan Guled of theEidagale line of theGarhajis clan. His coronation took place after the victorious battle of Lafaruug in which his father, a religious mullah Abdi Eisa successfully led the Isaaq in battle and defeated theAbsame tribes near Berbera where a century earlier the Isaaq clan expanded into. After witnessing his leadership and courage, theIsaaq chiefs recognized his father Abdi who refused the position instead relegating the title to his underage son Guled while the father acted as the regent till the son come of age. Guled was crowned the as the first Sultan of the Isaaq clan on July 1750 CE.[111] Sultan Guled thus ruled the Isaaq up until his death in 1839 CE, where he was succeeded by his eldest sonFarah full brother of Yuusuf and Du'ale, all from Guled's fourth wife Ambaro Me'ad Gadid.[112]
The Habr Yunis Sultanate was aSomali kingdom that ruled parts of theHorn of Africa during the 18th century CE. It spanned the territories of theHabr Yunis clan which is part of the widerIsaaq in modern daySomaliland andEthiopia. The sultanate was governed by theRer Ainanshe branch of the Habr Yunis clan.[113][114][115][116]
Mohammed Hassen explains the tradition around Nur Husain as reflecting the fact that "Gomma was the first state in the Gibe region where Islam became the religion of the whole people."[117]Trimingham states that Gomma was the first of the Gibe kingdoms to convert toIslam, quoting Major G.W. Harris as writing that by 1841 CE "in Goma the Moslem faith is universal."[118]
The Tooro Kingdom evolved out of a breakaway segment ofBunyoro some period before the 19th century CE.[119] It was founded in 1830 CE whenOmukamaKaboyo Olimi I, the eldest son ofOmukama of BunyoroNyamutukura Kyebambe III of Bunyoro, seceded and established his own independent kingdom.[120][121]
The Mbokane Kingdom or Chieftaincy dates back to the founding of the Swati nation. The Mbokane clan was one of the 17 founding clans of the Kingdom of Swaziland, now Eswatini. At least two of the olden days, King of Swaziland's senior advisers were from the Mbokane clan. The first known senior Chief of the Mbokane clan was Chief Gadlela Mbokane. He was the senior Chief and adviser to iNgwenyama King Dlamini III. Dlamini III was a king or iNgwenyama of the Swazi people and he led them approximately between 1720 until 1744. King Dlamini III was the father to Ngwane III the first King of modern Swaziland. Chief Manzini Mbokane was one of the senior adviser to King Mbandzeni. Mbandzeni (also known as Dlamini IV, Umbandine,[2] Umbandeen[3]) (1855–1889) was the King of Swaziland from 1872 until 1889. Chief Manzini Mbokane's granddaughter was also married to Prince Mbilini waMswati. Prince Mbilini waMswati was a Swazi prince and son of Mswati II.
The origins of Jimma are obscure, although prior to theOromo migrations, the territory this kingdom came to occupy had been part of the Kingdom of Kaffa. According to legend, a number of Oromo groups (variously given from five to 10) were led to Jimma by a great sorceress and Queen named Makhore, who carried aboku (usually connected with theabba boku, or headman of the OromoGadaa system)[122] which when placed on the ground would cause the earth to tremble and men to fear. It is said that with thisboku, she drove the Kaffa people living in the area across the Gojeb River. While this suggests that the Oromo invaders drove the original inhabitants from the area, Herbert S. Lewis notes that Oromo society was inclusionist, and the only ethnic differences they made are reflected in the history of various kinship groups.[123]
The latest kings of Gumma traced their origin to a man calledAdam. Around 1770 CE, he came to live in the area, and is said to have then helped in the deposition of the last king of the previous dynasty, Sarborada. The historian Mohammed Hassen, in discussing this tradition, suggests this tradition about Adam "was invented so as to Islamize the original founder of the dynasty."[124]
KingJawe was converted toIslam by merchants fromShewa andBegemder, and in turn he imposed his religious faith upon his subjects.[125]
Initially,Ali Yusuf Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighbouring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin BoqorOsman Mahamud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavour, and was eventually forced into exile inYemen. A decade later, in the 1870s CE, Kenadid returned from theArabian Peninsula with a band ofHadhramimusketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to overpower the localHawiye clans and establish the kingdom of Hobyo in 1878.[110][126][127]
In late 1888 CE, Sultan Kenadid entered into a treaty with theItalians, making his realm an Italianprotectorate. His rival Boqor Osman would sign a similar agreement vis-a-vis his own Sultanate the following year. Both rulers had signed the protectorate treaties to advance their own expansionist objectives, with Kenadid looking to use Italy's support in his dispute with theOmaniSultan of Zanzibar over an area borderingWarsheikh, in addition to his ongoing power struggle over the Majeerteen Sultanate with Boqor Osman. In signing the agreements, the rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued independence of their territories.[128]
The Karagwe kingdom was part of the many Great Lakes Kingdoms in East Africa. The kingdom reached its apex during the 19th century CE. The growth occurred during the early part of the 1800s CE with King Ndagara who came to power around 1820 CE and ruled until 1853 CE at which time he was replaced by King Rumanika.[129]
Unyanyembe had a large population of the Tutsi in the 19th century CE. Although they came primarily as herdsmen, many were recruited into the army for the war against Urambo.[130]
Much of Mirambo's success came from his associations with theWatuta. This was a sub-group ofNgoni people, who were connected withZwagendaba. With the wars in southern Africa asShaka had expanded Zulu power, this group had been driven north, this particular sub-group settling nearBukune. Mirambo was closely associated with the Watuta's leaderMpangalala. It seems that it was from Mpangalala Mirambo learned about the age-grade military systems of southern Africa, and this led to Mirambo implementing it in his own similar system called the rugaruga. By the early 1880s CE, this military organization had about 10,000 members.[131]
Further information in the sections ofArchitecture of Africa:
Further information in the sections ofHistory of science and technology in Africa:
From the region ofKenya andTanzania toSouth Africa, easternBantu-speaking Africans constitute a north to south geneticcline; additionally, fromeastern Africa to towardsouthern Africa, evidence of genetic homogeneity is indicative of aserial founder effect andadmixture events having occurred between Bantu-speaking Africans andother African populations by the time the Bantu migration had spanned into South Africa.[132]
WhileDenisovan andNeanderthal ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain,archaic human ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.[133]
AtMota, inEthiopia, an individual, estimated to date to the 5th millennium BP, carried haplogroupsE1b1 andL3x2a.[134][135] The individual of Mota is genetically related to groups residing near the region of Mota, and in particular, are considerably genetically related to theAri people.[136][137]
At Jawuoyo Rockshelter, inKisumu County,Kenya, a forager of the LaterStone Age carried haplogroupsE1b1b1a1b2/E-V22 andL4b2a2c.[138][139]
At Ol Kalou, inNyandarua County,Kenya, a pastoralist of thePastoral Neolithic carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL3d1d.[138][139]
At Kokurmatakore, inMarsabit County,Kenya, a pastoralist of the PastoralIron Age carried haplogroupsE1b1b1/E-M35 andL3a2a.[138][139]
At White Rock Point, inHoma Bay County,Kenya, there were two foragers of the LaterStone Age; one carried haplogroupsBT (xCT), likelyB, andL2a4, and another probably carriedhaplogroup L0a2.[138][139]
At Nyarindi Rockshelter, inKenya, there were two individuals, dated to the LaterStone Age (3500 BP); one carriedhaplogroup L4b2a and another carriedhaplogroup E (E-M96, E-P162).[140]
At Lukenya Hill, inKenya, there were two individuals, dated to thePastoral Neolithic (3500 BP); one carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-CTS10880) andL4b2a2b, and another carriedhaplogroup L0f1.[140]
At Hyrax Hill, inKenya, an individual, dated to thePastoral Neolithic (2300 BP), carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-M293) andL5a1b.[140]
At Molo Cave, inKenya, there were two individuals, dated to thePastoral Neolithic (1500 BP); while one had haplogroups that went undetermined, another carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-M293) andL3h1a2a1.[140]
At Kakapel, inKenya, there were three individuals, one dated to the LaterStone Age (3900 BP) and two dated to the LaterIron Age (300 BP, 900 BP); one carried haplogroupsCT (CT-M168, CT-M5695) andL3i1, another carriedhaplogroup L2a1f, and the last carriedhaplogroup L2a5.[140]
AtPanga ya Saidi, inKenya, an individual, estimated to date between 496 BP and 322 BP, carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2 andL4b2a2.[141]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3b1a1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a1b2a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL3e3a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3b1a11.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3b1a1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL0a2a1a2.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL2a1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2 andL3f1b1a1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3b1a1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a2.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3f1b4a1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3e3.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a2a2a1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroupsJ andL3b1a1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L1b1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L2a1f1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3b1a+@16124.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1b andL0a2a2a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2a1a1a1a1f~ andL0a2a2a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL0a2a2a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carriedhaplogroup M30d1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a2a2a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a1b1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1226 cal CE and 1297 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andM30d1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1323 cal CE and 1423 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1b andL0d3.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1350 CE and 1500 CE, carriedhaplogroup L1c3a1b.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1400 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2 andL3e3a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1408 cal CE and 1442 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a2a1a2.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1424 cal CE and 1457 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L3a2.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1435 cal CE and 1469 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ andL3d1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1435 cal CE and 1479 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL0a2a2a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1442 cal CE and 1612 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ1 andL0a1b1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1445 cal CE and 1609 cal CE, carried haplogroupsR1a1a1 andL3b1a1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1446 cal CE and 1611 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL3d1a1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1446 cal CE and 1614 cal CE, carried haplogroupsR1a1a1 andL3e1d1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1446 cal CE and 1623 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ1a2a1a2d2b~ andL1b1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1450 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroupsJ2a1a1a2a2b andL0a2a1a2.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1451 cal CE and 1619 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ1 andL3e3a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1454 cal CE and 1623 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L3f1b1a1.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1457 cal CE and 1626 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L2a1b1a.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1496 cal CE and 1630 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L1c3a1b.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1497 cal CE and 1640 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L2a1'2'3'4.[142]
AtKilifi,Mtwapa, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1508 cal CE and 1654 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup R0+16189.[142]
At Kisima Farm/Porcupine Cave, inLaikipia County,Kenya, there were two pastoralists of thePastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andM1a1, and another carried haplogroupM1a1f.[138][139]
At Kisima Farm/C4, inLaikipia County,Kenya, a pastoralist of the PastoralIron Age, carried haplogroupsE2 (xE2b)/E-M75 andL3h1a1.[138][139]
At Laikipia District Burial, inLaikipia County,Kenya, a pastoralist of the PastoralIron Age carried haplogroupL0a1c1.[138][139]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 800 CE and 1500 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3d1a1a.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1400 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroupsJ2 andL2d1a.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1400 CE and 1700 CE, carriedhaplogroup L2d1a.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1437 cal CE and 1482 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L2a1b1.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1456 cal CE and 1621 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L2d1a.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1456 cal CE and 1621 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup J2.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1457 cal CE and 1626 cal CE, carried haplogroupsJ2b2a2~ andL2d1a.[142]
AtLamu,Manda, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1485 cal CE and 1629 cal CE, carried haplogroupsG2a andL3e3a.[142]
AtLamu,Pate Island,Faza, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1500 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a andL3e3a.[142]
At Prettejohn's Gully, inNakuru County, Kenya, there were two pastoralists of the early pastoral period; one carried haplogroupsE2 (xE2b)/E-M75 andK1a, and another carried haplogroupL3f1b.[138][139]
At Cole's Burial, inNakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of thePastoral Neolithic carried haplogroupsE1b1b1a1a1b1/E-CTS3282 andL3i2.[138][139]
At Rigo Cave, inNakuru County, Kenya, there were three pastoralists of thePastoral Neolithic/Elmenteitan, one carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL3f, another carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486, likelyE-M293, and probablyM1a1b, and the last carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL4b2a2c.[138][139]
At Naishi Rockshelter, inNakuru County, Kenya, there two pastoralists of thePastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b/E-V1515, likelyE-M293, andL3x1a, and another carried haplogroupsA1b (xA1b1b2a)/A-P108 andL0a2d.[138][139]
At Keringet Cave, inNakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of thePastoral Neolithic carriedhaplogroups A1b1b2/A-L427 andL4b2a1, and another pastoralist of thePastoral Neolithic/Elmenteitan carriedhaplogroup K1a.[138][139]
At Naivasha Burial Site, inNakuru County, Kenya, there were five pastoralists of thePastoral Neolithic; one carriedhaplogroup L4b2a2b, another carried haplogroups xBT, likelyA, andM1a1b, another carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL3h1a1, another carried haplogroupsA1b1b2b/A-M13 andL4a1, and the last carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL3x1a.[138][139]
At Njoro River Cave II, inNakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of thePastoral Neolithic carried haplogroupL3h1a2a1.[138][139]
At Egerton Cave, inNakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of thePastoral Neolithic/Elmenteitan carried haplogroupL0a1d.[138][139]
At Ilkek Mounds, inNakuru County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the PastoralIron Age carried haplogroupsE2 (xE2b)/E-M75 andL0f2a.[138][139]
At Deloraine Farm, inNakuru County, Kenya, an iron metallurgist of theIron Age carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a1a/E-M58 andL5b1.[138][139]
At Kasiole 2, inNarok County,Kenya, a pastoralist of the PastoralIron Age carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b/E-V1515, likelyE-M293, andL3h1a2a1.[138][139]
At Emurua Ole Polos, inNarok County,Kenya, a pastoralist of the PastoralIron Age carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL3h1a2a1.[138][139]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a andL4b2a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3d1a1a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3d1a1a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c andL1c3b1a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3f2a1.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0f2a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L5a1a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a andL2a1+143.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L0d3.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3e3a.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1667 cal CE and 1843 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3b1d1c andL2a1+143.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1698 cal CE and 1950 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L0a1a+200.[142]
AtTaita Taveta, Makwasinyi, inKenya, an individual, dated between 1709 cal CE and 1927 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d~ andL3a2.[142]
At Mlambalasi rockshelter, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 20,345 BP and 17,025 BP, carried undetermined haplogroups.[143]
At Kisese II rockshelter, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 7240 BP and 6985 BP, carried haplogroupsB2b1a~ andL5b2.[143]
AtLuxmanda,Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 3141 BP and 2890 BP, carriedhaplogroup L2a1.[141]
AtKuumbi Cave, inZanzibar,Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 1370 BP and 1303 BP, carried haplogroupL4b2a2c.[141]
At Gishimangeda Cave, inKaratu District,Tanzania, there were eleven pastoralists of thePastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroupsE1b1b1a1b2/E-V22 andHV1b1, another carriedhaplogroup L0a, another carried haplogroupL3x1, another carried haplogroupL4b2a2b, another carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 andL3i2, another carried haplogroupL3h1a2a1, another carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486, likelyE-M293 andL0f2a1, and another carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2/E-V1486, likelyE-M293, andT2+150; while most of the haplogroups among three pastoralists went undetermined, one was determined to carryhaplogroup BT, likelyB.[138][139]
AtKilwa, Coast, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1300 CE and 1600 CE, carried haplogroupsJ2a2a1a1a2a~ andL2a1h.[142]
AtKilwa, Coast, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1300 CE and 1600 CE, carriedhaplogroup L3b1a11.[142]
AtLindi, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1511 cal CE and 1664 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d~ andL0a1a2.[142]
At Makangale Cave, onPemba Island,Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 1421 BP and 1307 BP, carriedhaplogroup L0a.[141]
At Makangale Cave, onPemba Island,Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 639 BP and 544 BP, carriedhaplogroup L2a1a2.[141]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1294 cal CE and 1392 cal CE, carried haplogroupsR1a andL3e3a.[142]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1402 cal CE and 1437 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L3e2b1a2.[142]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1412 cal CE and 1446 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L3d1a1a.[142]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1418 cal CE and 1450 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1a1~ andL3e2b.[142]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1508 cal CE and 1648 cal CE, carriedhaplogroup L3d1a1a1.[142]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1516 cal CE and 1667 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1b1b2b2a1a~ andL3a1b.[142]
AtSongo Mnara, inTanzania, an individual, dated between 1629 cal CE and 1794 cal CE, carried haplogroupsE1b1b1a1a1b2~ andL3d1a1a1.[142]
AtMunsa, inUganda, an individual, dated to the LaterIron Age (500 BP), carried haplogroupL3b1a1.[140]
As of 19,000 years ago, Africans, bearinghaplogroup E1b1a-V38, likely traversed across theSahara, fromeast towest.[144]
Before theEast Africanslavetrade period, East Africans, who carriedhaplogroup E1b1a-M2, expanded intoArabia, resulting in various rates of inheritance throughout Arabia (e.g., 2.8%Qatar, 3.2%Yemen, 5.5%United Arab Emirates, 7.4%Oman).[145]
In 150,000 BP, Africans (e.g.,Central Africans,East Africans) bearinghaplogroup L1 diverged.[146] In 130,000 BP, Africans bearinghaplogroup L5 diverged inEast Africa.[146] Between 130,000 BP and 75,000 BP,behavioral modernity emerged amongSouthern Africans and long-term interactions between the regions of Southern Africa andEastern Africa became established.[146] Between 75,000 BP and 60,000 BP, Africans bearinghaplogroup L3 emerged inEast Africa and eventually migrated into and became present in modernWest Africans,Central Africans, andnon-Africans.[146] Amid the Holocene, including theHolocene Climate Optimum in 8000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L2 spread within West Africa and Africans bearing haplogroup L3 spread within East Africa.[146] As the largest migration since theOut of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred, by West Africans, Central Africans, and East Africans, resulting in migrations intoEurope andAsia; consequently, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe and Asia.[146] During the early period of theHolocene, 50% ofSub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced intoNorth Africa byWest Africans and the other 50% was introduced byEast Africans.[146] During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into North Africa than East Africans.[146] Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Southwest Asia byEast Africans, largely in the region ofArabia, which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modernSouthwest Asia.[146] In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[146]
Across all areas ofMadagascar, the average ancestry for theMalagasy people was found to be 4%West Eurasian, 37%Austronesian, and 59%Bantu.[147]
The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergoadaptation areregulatory DNA, and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate todiet,physiology, andevolutionary pressures from pathogens.[132] ThroughoutSub-Saharan Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation,Duffy blood group, increased rates ofG6PD deficiency,sickle cell disease) tomalaria has been found amongSub-Saharan Africans, which may have initially developed in 7300 BP.[132]Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of theDuffy-null genotype.[148] In thehighlands ofEthiopia, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs10803083, anSNP associated with the rate and function ofhemoglobin; BHLHE41, a gene associated withcircadian rhythm andhypoxia response; EGNL1, a gene strongly associated with oxygenhomeostasis in mammals) to hypoxia and lowatmospheric pressure has been found among the Amhara people, which may have developed within the past 5000 years.[132] InTanzania, genetic adaptation (e.g., greater amount ofamylase genes than in African populations that consume low-starch foods) has been found in theHadza people due to a food diet that especially includes consumption oftubers.[132]
Undated
Later in their history, the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century.
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