In the twentieth century, Christianity declined in most of the Western world but grew in theGlobal South, particularlySoutheast Asia andSub-Saharan Africa. In the twenty first century, Christianity has become the most diverse and pluralistic of the world's religions embracing over 3000 of the world's languages.[1]
The first Christians were predominantly Jewish.[18][19] They gathered insmall groups inside private homes where the typical setting for worship was the communal meal.[20][21] Elders (calledpresbyters orbishops) oversaw the small groups, providing for the economic requirements of the meal and charitable distributions.[22][23][24][25]Women comprised significant numbers of Christianity's earliest members.[26] Religion had appeal because women could attain greater freedom through religious activities than Roman customs otherwise permitted.[27][28][29][30] The Pauline epistles recognize their presence in early Christian congregations.[31][32] Christianity most likely began in Jerusalem with fewer than 1000 believers, which grew to approximately one hundredsmall household churches, each with an average of seventy members, by the year 100.[33]
Of the original believers, Jesus kept twelve disciples close to him who became known asthe Apostles.[34] Saul of Tarsus, who becamePaul the Apostle, was a Jewish Pharisee who had not known Jesus and persecuted early Christians. According to his own account, his life turned in the opposite direction after experiencing a vision of Christ on the road to Damascus.[35] Driven by belief and characterized by passion, the twelve Apostles and Paul identified evangelism as a task to be undertaken, which prompted them to travel through foreign lands sharing their message.[36][37][38] Christianity was largely an urban religion[39] that spread along the trade and travel routes into theJewish diaspora and beyond.[40][41][42][43][44] The largest cities in the Roman Empire, such as Rome,Alexandria, Antioch,Ephesus, andCarthage, all had Christian congregations by the end of the first century.[45]
In the early centuries, the languages most used to spread Christianity wereGreek,Syriac (a form ofAramaic), andLatin.[58] Christian writings inKoine Greek, including thefour gospels (the accounts of Jesus' ministry),letters of Paul, and letters attributed to other early Christian leaders, were written in the first century and had considerable authority, even in the formative period.[59][60] Letters sent by Paul the Apostle toChristian communities were circulating in collected form by the end of the first century.[61]
The Christian faith spread east into Syria and Mesopotamia where the population spoke Aramaic, not Greek. Aramaic Christians were inAdiabene (northern Iraq) by the second century.[62] By the second century Christianity was in North Africa,[63] and by the third century, it had spread across the Mediterranean region, from Greece and Anatolia into the Balkans in the East, and as far as Roman Britain in the northwest.[64][65]
Christianity's ideology, combined with its social impact, were pivotal to this growth.[66][67] Christianity offered people new ways of thinking.[68][69][70][71] For example, the idea that the power of God was manifested through Jesus in a reversal of power challenged Roman concepts of hierarchy.[72][73][74] In sociologist Rodney Stark's view, Christianity grew because it constituted an "intense community" which provided a unique "sense of belonging".[75][76] However, early Christianity demonstrates both inclusion and exclusion.[77] Belief in Jesus was the crucial and defining characteristic for becoming a Christian, and early Christianity was highly inclusive toward anyone who expressed such belief.[78][79]Ancient philosophy Professor Danny Praet writes that believers were also highly exclusive; they were separated from unbelievers by a strong social boundary based on belief rather than ritual in the traditional Roman fashion.[80][81][82]
Half-length portrait of a virgin consecrated to God, praying with an orante prayer position, from the book Die Malereien der Katakomben Roms, plate 80
Women are prominent in the Pauline epistles[83][84] andearly Christian art.[85][27][86][87][note 1] Church rolls from the second century list groups of women "exercising the office of widow".[92][84]Much of the most virulent anti-Christian criticism of this period was linked to "female initiative", which may have contributed to the sporadic but increasingpersecution.[86]
Christians were persecuted by the Roman empire because they did not uphold fundamental beliefs of Roman society and their withdrawal from public religion made them targets of suspicion and rumor.[93][94][95][96] For most of its early centuries, Christianity was tolerated, and episodes of persecution were local.[97] EmperorNero's persecution of Christians during the mid-1st century was confined to Rome. There were no empire-wide persecutions until the 250s.[98] Official persecutionreached its height under Diocletian in 303–311.[99][100][94]
By 200, Christian numbers had grown to over 200,000 people, and communities with an average size of 500–1000 people existed in approximately 200–400 towns. By 250, Christianity had grown to over a million.[43][44] House churches were then succeeded by buildings designed to be churches, complete with assembly rooms, classrooms, and dining rooms.[101][102] A more formal church government developed at different times in different locations. Bishops were essential to this development, and they rose in power and influence as they began to preside over larger areas with multiple churches.[103][104][105][106]
Christiansects,cults, andmovements rose during the second and third centuries.[107]Gnostic texts challenged the physical nature of Jesus,Montanism suggested that the apostles could be superseded, andMonarchianism emphasized the unity of God over the Trinity.[108] The four gospels and the letters of Paul were generally regarded as authoritative, but other writings, such as theBook of Revelation and the epistlesto the Hebrews,James, and1 John, were assigned different degrees of authority.[109][110][111] In the face of such diversity, unity was provided by the shared scriptures and bishops.[112][113]
The fluidity of the New Testament in the first century does not seem to have affected belief in theTrinity as it connected to Christology and salvation. Christianity'scentral mystery, the Trinity, defines the Holy Spirit, Father, and Son as one God in three persons.[114] However, there is an evolution of thought in thePatristic writings, then the development of thecanon, and later in the theological controversies of the fourth century, that shaped the concept's development and gradually created a more technical Trinitarian vocabulary.[115][116]
One of the oldest representations of Jesus as the Good Shepherd, made around 300 AD.
There are few remnants of early Christian art, but the oldest, dated between 200 and 400, have been found in the catacombs of Rome.[117][118][119] It typically fused Graeco-Roman style and Christian symbolism: the most common image was Jesus as thegood shepherd.[120][121]
Late Antiquity was an age of change in which Christianity became a permitted religion, then a favored one that transformed in every capacity.[122] In 313, the emperorConstantine, a self-declared Christian, issued theEdict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions.[123] Thereafter,he supported Christianity by giving bishops judicial power and establishing them as legally equal to polytheistic priests.[124] He devoted personal and public funds to building churches and endowed them with funds to support their clergy.[125] There were churches in the majority of Roman cities by the end of the fourth century.[126]
Ancient fresco ofagape feast from the Roman catacombs
Before the fourth century, Judaism had been anapproved religion, while Christianity was persecuted as an illegal superstition; during the fourth century, Christianity became favored by emperors and Judaism came to be seen as similar toheresy.[141] Still,Augustine of Hippo argued that Jews should not be killed or forcibly converted; they should be left alone because they preserved the teachings of theOld Testament and were "living witnesses" of the New Testament.[142] Aside from theVisigothic Kingdom, Jews and Christians peacefully coexisted, for the most part, into the High Middle Ages.[143][144][note 2]
Constantine and his successors attempted to fit the church into their political program.[148] Church leaders responded with the first fully articulated limitation on secular authority based on the church as a separate entity, arguing that the church was not part of the empire so much as the empire was part of the universal church.[149] During this period, the successors toPeter as Bishop of Rome (known as thePope) had limited influence, and they lacked the power to break free of secular involvement in church affairs. However, papal influence rose as eastern patriarchs looked to the Pope to resolve disagreements.[150][151][152]
Christianity grew rapidly throughout this period.[153][154] Christians in Persia, (present-day Iraq), were deeply persecuted in Late Antiquity, but their numbers still grew. In the fourth century the percentage of Christians was as high in theSasanian Empire as in the Roman Empire.[155] A form of Christianity made inroads among Arabs in Palestine, Yemen, and Arabia.[156] Even as theHuns,Ostrogoths,Visigoths, andVandals caused havoc in the Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, many of them converted to Christianity.[157][158][159] Syria was home to a thriving theological school.[156][160] The gospel was first brought to Central Asia and China by Syriac-speaking missionaries.[62]
Christian institutions in Asia or East Africa never developed the kind of influence that the European churches and Byzantium held.[161] Even so, in 301, theKingdom of Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as itsstate religion, soon followed byCaucasian Albania and the East AfricanKingdom of Aksum.[162][163][164] Christianity, a minority faith in Britain since the second century,[165] began to be displaced byAnglo-Saxon paganism in the fifth century.[166] However, this process reversed after theGregorian mission of 597.[167] In the early fifth century, missionaries began converting Ireland.[168]
Scholars have traditionally interpreted the many Late Antique writings alleging violent acts by Christians against paganism as evidence of a widespread historical reality.[169][170][171] This has been questioned in recent decades using modern archaeology.[172][173] For example, temple destruction is attested in 43 cases in the written sources, but only four are supported by archaeological evidence.[174][note 3] These studies indicate narrated violence was misattributed or over-reported,[178] and though there were violent incidents, they were few, local, limited, and at the ordinary level of occurrence in Roman society.[170][179][180][181] In addition, violent writings, traditionally seen as encouraging violent acts,[182] were composed after, not before, events. Many arehagiography depicting the Christian God defeating the pagan gods in Heaven.[183] Michael Gaddis says these writings were used to connect Christianity's heavenly "triumph" with the new identity Christians wrote for themselves as 'victors'.[184][185][186][187]
Religious violence between pagans and Christians may not have been a general phenomenon, but from the time of Constantine, there was virulent legal hostility toward certain pagan practices.[188] Blood sacrifice, which had been a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, disappeared by the end of the fourth century due to hostile imperial laws.[189][190] Still, polytheism remained active into the fifth century, and in some places, into the ninth, even though popular support for the polytheistic religions had been in decline since the second century BC.[191][192][193][194][note 4]
Constantine generally supported resolving religious disputes through debate, not force,[199][200] but in 304,Donatists formed a schism in North Africa, refusing, often violently, to accept back into the church those who had apostatized during Diocletian's persecution.[201][202][203] The emperor attempted to impose public order through force, but it was ineffective, and in 321, Constantine decided no more punishment would be given to Donatists, but their Catholic victims would become venerated as Christian martyrs.[204][205] In 408,Augustine defended the government's violent response asserting that coercion could not produce genuine conversion, but it could soften resistance and make conversion possible. According to Peter Brown, Augustine thus "provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution".[206][201][207]
Regional variants of Christianity produced diverse and sometimes competing theologies.[208][209] Ancient Christians identified any practice or doctrine which differed from apostolic tradition asheresy.[82][210][211] The number of laws directed at heresy indicate it was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians of this period.[212][213]
For decades,Arianism embroiled the entire church,laity (non-clergy) and clergy alike, in arguing whether Jesus' divinity was equal to the Father's.[19][214][215] TheFirst Council of Nicaea in 325 attempted to resolve the controversy with theNicene Creed, but some refused to accept it.[216][217] Along the Eastern Mediterranean, where Christian factions struggled without resolution, Christian communities were weakened, affecting their long-term survival.[218]
Debate became a primary method of competition between pagans and Christians. Persuasion, rhetoric andpolemics centered on the true meaning oflogos (the word).[219][220][221][222] Pagans asserted its correct meaning wasallegorical and could be found in ancient myths and poetics.[223] Christians asserted Jesus as the living word in their first trueontologies.[188][224]
Biblical commentators between 300 and 600 focused more on aiding ordinary Christians whose main concern was sin and salvation.[225][226] Christian baptism was distinctive and demonstrated how Christians understood these concepts in terms of the death of Christ.[227][228] As theology evolved, it held to the paradox of God's incarnation, as well as the decisive human contribution to redemption seen in Jesus.[228]
Christian scriptures were formalized as theNew Testament and distinguished from the Old Testament by the fourth century.[229][230] Despite agreement on these texts, differences between East and West were becoming evident.[231][232][233] The West was solidly Nicean while the East was largely Arian.[234] The West condemned Roman culture as sinful and resisted state control, whereas the East harmonized with Greek culture and aimed for unanimity between church and state.[235][236][237] The marriage of clerics was accepted in the East but forbidden in the West.[238][239] The East advocatedsharing the government of the church between five church leaders, arguing that thePatriarchs ofConstantinople,Alexandria,Antioch, andJerusalem were equal to the Pope. Rome asserted that successors to Peter hadsuperiority.[240][241]
Controversies over how Jesus' human and divine natures coexisted peaked whenNestorius declared Mary as the mother of Jesus' humanity, not his divinity, thereby giving Jesus two distinct natures.[242] This led to a series ofecumenical councils: theCouncil of Ephesus was the church's third council, and it condemned Nestorius. Held in 431, the church in the Persian Empire refused to recognize its authority. This led to the first separation between East and West. Two groups, one mostly Persian and the other Syrian, separated from Catholicism; Persians became theChurch of the East (also known as the Assyrian, Nestorian, or Persian Church), while the majority of Christians in Syria and Mesopotamia became theSyrian Orthodox Church (Jacobite).[243][note 5] This cut off the flourishing school of Syrian Semitic Christian theologians and writers from the rest of Christendom.[160] The Church of the East lay almost entirely outside the Byzantine Empire.[246] It became the principal Church in Asia in the Middle Ages.[247]
The religious policies of the Eastern Roman EmperorJustinian I (r. 527–565) reflected his conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith: he persecuted pagans and religious minorities, purging the government and church bureaucracies of those who disagreed with him.[260][259] Justinian contributed to cultural development,[261] and integrated Christian concepts with Roman law in hisCorpus Juris Civilis, which remains the basis of civil law in many modern states.[262][263]
In Gaul, the Frankish kingClovis I converted to Catholicism; his kingdom became the dominant polity in the West in 507, gradually converting into a Christian kingdom over the next centuries.[256][257] Papal influence rose as the church increasingly relied on Rome to resolve disagreements.[240][264]Pope Gregory I gained prestige and power for the papacy by leading the response to invasion by theLombards in 592 and 593, reforming the clergy, standardizing music in worship, sending out missionaries, and founding new monasteries.[265][266] Until 751, the Pope remained a subject of the Byzantine emperor.[241]
By the early 600s, Christianity had spread around the Mediterranean.[267] However,between 632 and 750, Islamiccaliphates conquered the Middle East, North Africa, and theIberian Peninsula.[268][269] Most urban Asian churches disappeared, but some Christian communities in remote areas survived.[270][271] In the same period, war on multiple fronts contributed to the Eastern Roman Empire becoming the independentByzantine Empire.[272] Until the eighth century,most of Western Europe remained largely impoverished, politically fragmented, and dependent on the church.[256][257]
During this period, invasion, deportation, and neglect left some communities without a church, allowing Christianity tosyncretize with local pagan traditions.[273][274] Nevertheless,"Christendom", the notion of all Christians united as apolity, emerged at the end of this age.[275][276]
Until the end of the Early Middle Ages, Western culture was preserved and passed on primarily by monks known as "regular clergy" because they followed aregula: a rule.[258][152] The rule included chastity, obedience and poverty sought through prayer, memorization of scripture, celibacy, fasting, manual labour, and almsgiving.[277][278] A monastery's location (whether it was remote or by a city), the monastic order it belonged to, its economic resources, and its local leadership determined whether it focused primarily on charitable work or spiritual pursuits and self-sufficiency.[279]
A page from a 15th-centurybook of hours (prayer book) with a decorated initial
Monasteries served as orphanages and inns for travelers, and many provided food for those in need.[280][281][282] They supportedliteracy, practiced classical arts and crafts, and copied and preserved ancient texts in theirscriptoria and libraries.[283][284] Dedicated monks createdilluminated manuscripts.[285] From the sixth to the eighth centuries, most schools were connected to monasteries, but methods of teaching an illiterate populace could also includemystery plays, vernacular sermons, saints' lives in epic form, and artwork.[276][286][287]
This was an age of uncertainty, and the role ofrelics and holy men able to provide special access to the divine became increasingly important.[288][289] Donations funding prayers for the dead provided an ongoing source of wealth.[290][291] Monasteries became increasingly organized, gradually establishing their own authority as separate from political and familial authorities, thereby revolutionizing social history.[292][293] Medical practice was highly important, and medieval monasteries were known for their public hospitals, hospices, and contributions to medicine.[294][295] The sixth-centuryRule of Saint Benedict has had extensive influence.[296][297][298]
The East developed an approach to sacred art unknown in the West, adapting ancient portraiture inicons as intercessors between God and humankind.[299] In the 720s, the Byzantine EmperorLeo banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, and destroyed much early representational art.[300] The West condemned theByzantine iconoclasm of Leo and some of his successors.[301] By the tenth and early eleventh centuries, Byzantine culture began to recover its artistic heritage.[302][303]
Eastern Europe had been exposed to Christianity during Roman rule, but it wasByzantine Christianity, brought by the ninth-century saintsCyril and Methodius, that was integral to the formation of its modern states. Dukes and kings used the new faith to solidify their position and promote unity, while some directly enforced it with new laws, building churches, and establishing monasteries.[304][305][160] The brothers developed theGlagolitic alphabet to translate the Bible into the local language. Their disciples then developed theCyrillic script, which spread literacy and became the cultural and religious foundation for all Slavic nations.[306][307][308]
In 635, the Church of the East brought Christianity into China.Emperor Taizong decreed that the Christian faith was allowed and its license was copied onto theSianfu stele.[309] It spread into northwestern China,Khotan,Turfan, and south ofLake Balkash in southeasternKazakhstan, but its growth was halted in 845 byEmperor Wuzong of Tang who favouredTaoism.[310] The Church of the East evangelized all along theSilk Road and was instrumental in converting some of theMongolic andTurkic peoples.[311] After 700, when much of Christianity was declining, there were flourishing Christian societies along all the main trade routes of Asia, South India, the Nubian kingdoms, Ethiopia, and the Caucasus region.[156][312]
In Western Europe,canon law was instrumental in developing key norms concerning oaths of loyalty, homage, and fidelity.[313] These norms were incorporated into civil law where traces remain.[314] Within the tenets offeudalism, the church created a new model of consecrated kingship unknown in the East, and in 800, Clovis' descendantCharlemagne became its recipient whenPope Leo III crowned him emperor.[315] Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms which began theCarolingian Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural revival.[316] His crowning set the precedent that only a pope could crown a Western emperor enabling popes to claim emperors derived their power from God through them.[317] The Papacy became free from Byzantine control, and the former lands of theExarchate became States of the church.[317][318] However, the papacy was still in need of aid and protection, so the Holy Roman emperors often used that need to attempt domination of the Papacy and the Papal States.[317] In Rome, the papacy came under the control of the city's aristocracy.[318][319]
In Russia, the baptism ofVladimir of Kiev in 989 is traditionally associated with the conversion of theKievan Rus'.[320] Their new religious structure included dukes maintaining control of a financially-dependent church.[321][322][note 7] Monasticism was the dominant form of piety for both peasants and elites who identified as Christian while retaining many pre-Christian practices.[324]
Viking raids in the ninth and tenth centuries destroyed many churches and monasteries, inadvertently leading to reform. Patrons competed in rebuilding so that "by the mid-eleventh century, a wealthy, unified, better-organized, better-educated, more spiritually sensitive Latin Church" resulted.[325] There was another rise in papal power in the tenth century whenWilliam IX, Duke of Aquitaine, and other powerful lay founders of monasteries, placed their institutions under the protection of the papacy.[326][327][328]
Membership in the Christendom of this age began with baptism at birth.[329][330][331] Every follower was supposed to have some knowledge of theApostles' Creed and theLord's Prayer, to rest on Sunday and feast days, attend mass, fast at specified times, take communion at Easter, pay various fees for the needy, and receive last rites at death.[332][333] From 1198–1216,Pope Innocent III raised the papacy's influence to its greatest height.[334][335]
The High Middle Ages saw the formation of several fundamental doctrines, such as the seven sacraments, the just reward for labour, "the terms of Christian marriage, the nature of clerical celibacy and the appropriate lifestyle for priests".[336] Heresy was more precisely defined.[337]Purgatory became an official doctrine. In 1215,confession became required for all.[338][339] Therosary was created after veneration ofMary, mother of Jesus became a central aspect of the period.[340]
Beginning atCluny Abbey (910), which usedRomanesque architecture to convey a sense of awe and wonder and inspire obedience, monasteries gained influence through theCluniac Reforms.[341][342][note 8] However, their cultural and religious dominance began to decline in the mid-eleventh century whensecular clergy, who were not members of religious orders, rose in influence.[344] Monastery schools lost influence ascathedral schools spread,[345] independent schools arose,[346] anduniversities formed as self-governing corporations chartered by popes and kings.[347][348] Canon and civil law became professionalized, and a new literate elite formed, further displacing monks.[349][350] Throughout this period, the clergy and the laity became "more literate, more worldly, and more self-assertive".[351][note 9]
Thereform ofPope Gregory VII (1073–1085) began "a new period in church history" by pressing for an end to simony (the sale of church offices), the enforcement of clerical celibacy, and the establishment of papal supremacy.[240][355] Previously, the power of kings and emperors had been (at least partly) founded on connection to the sacred.[356][349] Gregorian Reform intended to divest Western rule of that sacramental character, free the church from state control, and establish the preeminence of the church.[357] The reform process reinforced the pope's temporal power, enabling a reorganization of the administration of thePapal States which brought a substantial increase in wealth, consolidated territory, centralized authority, and established a bureaucracy.[358][359][349]
In the preceding era of raids by Muslim pirates and Viking warriors, church leaders had been forced to seek protection by nobles who then saw it as their right to control the institutions they protected.[360] In 1061,Pope Nicholas II moved to protect the papacy from secular control by establishing that popes could only be elected by aCollege of Cardinals, however, both the nobles and the church still claimed the right to appoint bishops.[360] This led to theInvestiture Controversy, a conflict between the Holy Roman EmperorHenry IV and Pope Gregory VII over the secular appointment of bishops and abbots and control of their revenues in theHoly Roman Empire.[361][362][363][364] For the church, ending lay investiture would support independence from the state, encourage reform, and provide betterpastoral care. For the kings, ending lay investiture meant the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and theEuropean nobility would be reduced.[365][366][367][368]
TheDictatus Papae of 1075 declared that the pope alone could invest bishops.[369] Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy;[370] when Henry IV rejected the decree, he wasexcommunicated, which contributed to acivil war.[371][372][373] A similar controversy occurred in England.[374] Struggles over division of power between church and state continued throughout the medieval era.[360]
The Church of the East, which had separated after Chalcedon, survived against the odds with help from Byzantium.[375] At the height of its expansion in the thirteenth century, the Church of the East stretched from Syria to eastern China and from Siberia to southern India and southern Asia.[376] Along with geographical separation, there had long been many cultural differences, geopolitical disagreements, and a lack of respect between east and west.[377][378] Their second separation took place in 1054 when the church within the Byzantine Empire formed ByzantineEastern Orthodoxy, which thereafter remained in communion with theEcumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, not the Pope.[379]
Christianity was declining in Mesopotamia and inner Iran.[380][381] As churches in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq became subject to fervently Islamic militaristic regimes, Christians were designated asdhimmi, a status that guaranteed their protection but enforced their legal inferiority.[382] Different communities adopted various survival strategies: some withdrew from interaction, others converted to Islam, and others sought outside help.[383] The Byzantine emperorAlexios I Komnenos askedPope Urban II for help with theSeljuk Turks in 1081,[384] and in 1095, Urban asked European Christians to "go to the aid of their brethren" in counterattack against the inroads of Islam.[385][386][387][388]
Urban's message had great popular appeal. Drawing on powerful and prevalent aspects of folk religion, it connectedpilgrimage,charity, andabsolution with a willingness to fight.[389][390] It gave ordinary Christians a tangible means of expressing brotherhood with the East and carried a sense of historical responsibility.[391] Tens of thousands answered.[392] Among the first wasPeter the Hermit who led thePeople's Crusade to a disastrous end in 1096.[393][360] EightCrusades, which lasted from 1096 to 1272, had little to no overall military success, failed as a religious endeavor, contributed to the development of national identities in European nations and, eventually, increased division with the East. Scholars struggle with no agreement on estimates of how many died.[394][385]
Thecult of chivalry, which upheld the ideal of the Christian knight, emerged with powerful and wide-spread social and cultural influence before its decline during the 1400s.[395][396] Another significant effect of the Crusades was the invention of theindulgence.[397]
TheChristianization of Scandinavia occurred in two stages: first, in the ninth century, missionaries operated without secular support; then, a secular ruler would begin to oversee Christianization in their territory until an organized ecclesiastical network was established.[398] By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.[399]
The Christian wars ofreconquest, which lasted over 200 years, had begun in Italy in 915 and in Spain in 1009 to retake territory lost to Muslims, causing fleeing Muslims in Sicily and Spain to leave behind their libraries.[400] Between 1150 and 1200, monks searched those libraries and found the works ofAristotle,Euclid, and other ancient writers.[401]
The West's rediscovery of the complete works of Aristotle led to theRenaissance of the twelfth century. It also created conflict between faith and reason, resolved by a revolution in thought calledscholasticism.[402][403] The scholastic writings ofThomas Aquinas impacted Catholic theology and influenced secular philosophy and law into the modern day.[404][405][406]
Monks revived the scientific study of natural phenomena, which laid the necessary foundation that eventually led to theScientific Revolution in the West.[407][408][409] There was no parallel Renaissance in the East.[299]
Byzantine art exerted a powerful influence on Western art in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.[410]Gothic architecture, intended to inspire contemplation of the divine, began in the same centuries.[411][412]
TheCistercian movement was a wave of monastic reform after 1098. Cistercians were instrumental in promotingtechnological advancement and were among the best industrialists of the Middle Ages.[413][414][415][416] Of the 740 twelfth-century Cistercian monasteries, nearly all possessed a water wheel used to develop innovative hydraulic engineering techniques, water circulation systems for central heating, produce olive oil or forge metal and produce iron. They taught and practiced advanced farming techniques such as crop rotation and were skilled metallurgists.[417]
The twelfth century saw a change in the goal of a monk from contemplative to active reformer.[418] Among these new activist preachers wasDominic who founded theDominican Order and was significant in opposingCatharism.[419][330] In 1209,Pope Innocent III and KingPhilip II of France initiated theAlbigensian Crusade againstCatharism.[420][421] The campaign took a political turn when the king's army seized and occupied strategic lands of nobles who had not supported the heretics but had instead been in the good graces of the Church.[422] It ended in 1229 with a treaty which brought the region under the rule of the French king, creatingsouthern France, while Catharism continued until 1350.[423][424]
TheMedieval Inquisition, which lasted from 1184 to the 1230s, was initiated byInnocent III in response to increasing concerns over heresy and public disorder.[425] These courts were established when someone was accused, then after prosecution, the court was dissolved.[426][427][428] Unlike the later modern inquisitions, these medieval courts did not have the power of prosecution on their own; they were dependent upon the civil courts.[429] Though these courts had no joint leadership, nor joint organization, theDominican Order held the primary responsibility for conducting inquisitions.[430][431][432] Between 8,000 and 40,000 people were brought to interrogation and sentencing, and death sentences were relatively rare.[433] The penalty imposed most often was an act of penance which might include public confession.[434]
Bishops were the lead inquisitors, but they did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally supported.[435][436] Inquisition became stridently contested as public opposition grew and riots against the Dominicans occurred.[437][438][439] TheFourth Lateran Council of 1215 empowered inquisitors to search out moral and religious "crimes" even when there was no accuser. In theory, this granted them extraordinary powers. In practice, without sufficient local secular support, their task became so overwhelmingly difficult that inquisitors were endangered and some were murdered.[440]
From 1170-80, the Jewish philosopher Moses ben Maimon (commonly known asMaimonides) wrote his fourteen-volume code of Jewish law and ethics, titled the "Mishneh Torah".[441] A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations occurred when theTalmud wasput "on trial" in 1239 by the French KingLouis IX andPope Gregory IX because of contents that mocked the central figures of Christianity.[442] Talmudic Judaism came to be seen as so different from biblical Judaism that old Augustinian obligations to leave the Jews alone no longer applied.[443][442][444] A rhetoric with elaborate stories casting Jews as enemies accused of ritual murder,blood libel, and desecration of the Christian eucharist host grew among ordinary folk. The spread of theBlack Death led to attacks on Jewish communities by people who blamed them for the epidemic.[445][446][447] Jews often acted as financial agents for the nobility, providing themloans with interest while being exempt from certain financial obligations. This attracted jealousy and resentment.[448] CountEmicho of Leiningen massacred Jews in search of supplies and protection money, while theYork massacre of 1190 also appears to have originated in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts.[449]
As newly centralized states demanded greater cultural conformity from their citizens,[450][451] canon laws that left out Christianity's earlier principles of equity and inclusivity were created.[452][453] The medieval church never officially repudiated Augustine's doctrine of protecting the Jews, but legal restrictions increasingly enabled treating them as outsiders.[450][451] Throughout the medieval era, local rulersevicted Jews from their lands and confiscated property.[454][455][456]
The nobility of Eastern Europe prioritized subduing theBalts, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, over crusading in the Holy Land.[457][note 10] In 1147, theDivina dispensatione gave these nobles indulgences for the first of theNorthern Crusades, which intermittently continued, with and without papal support, until 1316.[459][460][461] The clergy pragmatically accepted the forced conversions the nobles perpetrated despite continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.[462]
In 1309,Pope Clement V fled Rome's factional politics by moving toAvignon in southern France. By leaving Rome and the "seat of Peter" behind, thisAvignon Papacy, consisting of seven successive popes, unintentionally diminished papal prestige and power.[473][474]Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377.[475][476][464] After Gregory's death the following year, thepapal conclave electedUrban VI to succeed him, but the French cardinals disapproved and electedRobert of Geneva instead. This began theWestern Schism, during which there was more than one pope.[477] In 1409, theCouncil of Pisa's attempted resolution resulted in the election of a third separate pope. The schism was finally resolved in 1417, with the election ofPope Martin V.[478][479]
Throughout the Late Middle Ages, the church faced powerful challenges and vigorous political confrontations.[480][481] The English scholastic philosopherJohn Wycliffe (1320–1384) urged the church to embrace its original simplicity, give up its property and wealth, end subservience to secular politics, and deny papal authority.[482][483] Wycliffe's teachings were condemned as heresy, but he was allowed to live out the last two years of his life in his home parish.[484] In 1382, the first English translation of the Bible, known asWycliffe's Bible, was published.[485] Wycliffe's teachings influenced the Czech theologianJan Hus (1369–1415) who also spoke out against what he saw as corruption in the church.[486] Hus was convicted of heresy and burned at the stake.[487] This was the impetus for theBohemian Reformation and led to theHussite Wars.[488][489][490]
Meanwhile, a vernacular religious culture called theDevotio Moderna attempted to work toward a pious society of ordinary people.[491] Through the Dutch scholarDesiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (1466–1536),Christian humanism grew and impacted literature and education.[492] Between 1525 and 1534,William Tyndale used the Vulgate and Greek texts from Erasmus to create theTyndale Bible.[485] King James commissioned theKing James Version in 1604, using all previous versions in Latin, Greek, and English as sources. It was published in 1611.[493]
In 14th-century Byzantium,St. Gregory Palamas, defended hesychast spirituality and the Orthodox understanding of God against the criticisms ofBarlaam aCalabrian humanist philosopher, by writing his most influential work, "Triads", in 1341.[494]
A reunion agreement between the Orthodox and Catholic churches in 1452 was negated by theFall of Constantinople to theOttoman Empire in 1453, which sealed off Orthodoxy from the West for more than a century.[495][496][497] Islamic law did not acknowledge the Byzantine church as an institution, but a concern for societal stability allowed it to survive. Financial handicaps, constant upheaval,simony, and corruption impoverished many, and made conversion an attractive solution.[498][499][500] This led to the state confiscating churches and turning them into mosques.[500] The patriarchate became a part of the Ottoman system underSuleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566),[501][499] and by the end of the sixteenth century, widespread desperation and low morale had produced crisis and decline. WhenCyril I Loukaris (1572 – 1638) became Patriarch in 1620, he began leading the church toward renewal.[500] A shared hostility towards Catholicism led Cyril to reach out to the Protestants of Europe and to be deeply impacted by their Reformation doctrines.[502] Protestant pressure produced theLukaris Confession embracingCalvinism.[503]
The flight ofEastern Christians from Constantinople, as well as the manuscripts they carried with them, were important factors in stimulating literary renaissance in the West.[504][244] The Catholic Church became a leading patron ofart andarchitecture, commissioning work and supporting renowned artists.[505][506] Even while fifteenth-century popes struggled to reestablish papal authority, theRenaissance Papacy transformed Rome by rebuildingSt. Peter's Basilica and establishing the city as a prestigious centre of learning.[507] Reformation Protestants condemned these popes as corrupt for their lack of chastity, nepotism, and selling "hats and indulgences".[508]
Colonialism, which began in the fifteenth century, originated either on a militaristic/political path, a commercial one, or with settlers who wanted land.[514] Christian missionaries soon followed with their own separate agenda.[515][516][517][518] Relations between missionaries and colonialist companies, politicians, settlers, and traders were often antagonistic, because mission and colonial interests were in opposition to each other.[515][519] Missionaries promoted human development and provided healthcare and education which colonial governments were unwilling or unable to provide.[520]
Between 1500 and 1800, Catholic Christianity gained followers worldwide through missionaries from theSpanish,Portuguese, andFrench empires.[521][517][522] During the Hispanic colonization of the Americas, Latin America largely became aNew World form ofIberian Catholicism, while the merging of native and Spanish traditions also created a multitude of indigenous Christianities.[523][524]
Missionaries relied on colonial governments for protection, transportation, and status, so many of them cooperated with and benefitted from colonialism.[525][526][527] Many accepted the social views of the day which saw Western culture as superior; they encouraged the adoption of European practices and values to the detriment of indigenous customs and the disruption of local societies.[528][529][526] Some missionaries participated in forced relocation programs and boarding school systems that separated children from their families and cultures.[530] In Greater Syria during WWI, French missionaries used their local contacts to supply intelligence to French authorities.[531] Jesuits tried to suppress the trade inAmerindian slaves in the Caribbean, but became one of the largest holders of black slaves.[532][533][530]
"There were intense theological, moral, and juridical debates about the status and nature of human beings throughout [this] period. In the Spanish dominions, forceful denunciations of the ill-treatment of indigenous peoples in the Americas sometimes prompted new laws and measures aimed at regulating and controlling these abuses."[534] This led many missionaries to openly oppose colonialism.[535][536] Some actively worked to maintain the rights of indigenous peoples, advocated for their protection, and opposed oppressive colonial policies.[534] These missionaries respected local cultural structures, maintained local language and customs, and advocated for a "self-supporting, self-governing, and self-propogating church".[537] Missionaries likeJohn Mackenzie fought for equal legal protection and protected native lands.[538] Some missionaries can be seen as the forerunners of today's human-rights-advocates smuggling out reports of colonial abuses to their media contacts willing to expose injustices.[539][540] Religious societies such as the Moravians and the Quakers opposed slavery and worked toward abolition.[541]
Women in the Middle Ages were considered incapable of moral judgment and authority.[337][note 13] However, there were women who became distinguished leaders of nunneries, exercising the same powers and privileges as their male counterparts, such asHildegard of Bingen (d. 1179),Elisabeth of Schönau (d. 1164/65), andMarie d'Oignies (d. 1213). Hildegard began writing the first of her three-volume theology in 1141.[543][544][545]
Although the Catholic Church had long ruled thatwitches did not exist, the conviction that witches were both real and malevolent developed throughout fifteenth-century European society.[546][547] No single cause of the "witch frenzy" which followed is known, although theLittle Ice Age is thought to have been a factor.[548] In Finnish scholarMarko Nenonen [fi]'s view: "Most likely... there was no single economic, social or ideological (not even political) factor leading to witch-hunts. One has to face the fact that behind most accusations [there were] personal and private motives, of a very malicious nature..."[549] Between 100,000 and 200,000 people were accused most often by fellow villagers. Approximately 80% of the accused were women; most were acquitted; most trials were civil trials.[550][547][551] Inquisitions lessened the impact by requiring strict evidence.[552] From 1561 to 1670, it is estimated that between 40,000 and 50,000 people were executed.[550][547]
Between 1478 and 1542, the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions were initially authorized by the church but soon became state institutions.[553][554][555] Authorized byPope Sixtus IV in 1478, theSpanish Inquisition was established to combat fears that Jewish converts were conspiring with Muslims to sabotagethe new state.[556][557] Five years later, a papal bull conceded control of the Spanish Inquisition to Spanish monarchs, making it the first national, unified, centralized institution of the nascent Spanish state.[558][559][560] The monarchy centralized state power by absorbing and adapting military orders, Inquisitorial courts andpolice organizations for political purposes.[450]
Supported by secular and canon law, the fourteenth century was among the most oppressive forminorities in Western Europe.[452][563] Protests against the church led to theProtestant Reformation which began in 1517 when the Catholic monkMartin Luther nailed hisNinety-five Theses to the church door inWittenberg. Luther challenged the nature of the church's role in society and its authority.[564][565] For Catholics, authority meant the Pope. For the protesters, authority was found in the priesthood of believers and in Scripture.[565] Luther asserted there were two realms of human existence, the secular and the sacred, that neither should be allowed to dominate the other, and only secular authority had the right to use force.[566][565] Edicts issued at theDiet of Worms in 1521 condemned Luther.[567][568]
The Roman Catholic Church responded in theCounter-Reformation, spearheaded by ten reforming popes between 1534 to 1605. TheCouncil of Trent (1545–1563) answered each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of modern Catholic policies. New monastic orders were formed, including theSociety of Jesus – the "Jesuits" – who adopted military-style discipline and strict loyalty to the Pope.[575][576] Monastic reform also led to theSpanish mystics and theFrench school of spirituality,[577] as well as theUniate church which used Eastern liturgy but recognized the authority of Rome.[578]
Quarreling royal houses, already involved in dynastic disagreements, became polarized into the two religious camps.[579] In 1562, France became the centre ofa series of wars, of which the largest and most destructive was theThirty Years' War (1618–1648).[580][450] While some scholars argue that these wars were varieties of thejust war tradition for religious liberty and freedom,[581] most historians argue that the wars were also about nationalistic state-building and economics.[582][583]
The era ofpolitical absolutism followed the breakdown of Christian universalism in Europe.[584] Abuses from absolutist Catholic kings gave rise to a virulent critique of Christianity that first emerged among the more extreme Protestant reformers in the 1680s as an aspect of theAge of Enlightenment.[585][586] For 200 years, Protestants had been arguing for religious toleration,[587][588] and by the 1690s, secular thinkers were rethinking the state's reasons for persecution, and they too began advocating for religious toleration.[589][590] Concepts offreedom of religion,speech, andthought began being established in the West.[591][592][593]
The rise of Protestantism contributed to the conceptualization ofhuman capital,[612] development of theProtestant work ethic,[613] the European state system,[614] moderncapitalism in Northern Europe,[615] and overall economic growth.[616] However,urbanization andindustrialisation created a plethora of new social problems.[617][618] In Europe and North America, both Protestants and Catholics provided massive aid to the poor, supported family welfare, and offered medicine and education.[619]
This revival focused on evidencing conversion through active moral reform in areas such aswomen's rights,temperance, literacy, andthe abolition of slavery. The pursuit of women's rights established "prayer, worship, and biblical exegesis as weapons of political warfare".[625] Women were involved in temperance reform from the early 1800s.[626] Concern for women who suffered at the hands of drunkards was a recurrent theme of temperance literature which used moral persuasion to effect change.[627] In Maine of 1851, the power of the state to effect immediate social change overshadowed such efforts, and temperance became prohibition: a political movement.[628] TheWoman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded in 1874; many supporters went on to contribute to the women's rights movement.[629]
American anti-slavery tract, 1853
The 300-year-oldtrans-Atlantic slave trade, in which some Christians had participated, had always garnered moral objections, and by the eighteenth century, individualQuakers,Methodists, Presbyterians, andBaptists began a written campaign against it.[630] Congregations led by black preachers kept abolitionism alive into the early nineteenth century when some American Protestants organized the firstanti-slavery societies.[631] This ideological opposition eventually ended the trans-Atlantic slave trade, changing economic and human history on three continents.[632][633]
TheThird Great Awakening began in 1857 and took root throughout the world, especially in English-speaking countries, contributing to a surge of missionary zeal.[634][635] Nineteenth-century Protestant missionaries, many of them women, played a significant role in shaping nations and societies.[636][637][638][619] They translated the Bible into local languages, generating a writtengrammar, alexicon of native traditions, and adictionary of the local language.[1] These were used to teach in missionary schools, resulting in the spread of literacy andindigenization.[639][640][641] According to historianLamin Sanneh, Protestant missionaries thus stimulated the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal" in African history.[642][643][644]
Liberal Christians embraced seventeenth-century rationalism, but its disregard of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity led to its decline.Fundamentalist Christianity rose in the early 1900s as a reaction againstmodern rationalism.[645][646] By 1930, Protestant fundamentalism in America appeared to be dying.[647][648] However, in the second half of the 1930s, a theology against liberalism that also included a reevaluation of Reformation teachings began uniting moderates of both sides.[649][650]
The Roman Catholic Church became increasingly centralized, conservative, and focused on loyalty to the Pope.[597] As Nazism rose,Pope Pius XI declared the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with totalitarian fascist states that placed the nation above God.[653] Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, theGerman Evangelical Church, supported theNazi Party when they came to power in 1933.[654] About a third of German Protestants formed theConfessing Church which opposed Nazism; its members were harassed, arrested, and otherwise targeted. In Poland, Catholic priests were arrested andPolish priests and nuns were executed en masse.[655]
Before 1945, about a third of the people in the world were Christians, and about 80% of them lived in Europe, Russia, and the Americas.[667] In 2025, 31% of adults around the world declare themselves Christian, but they are no longer concentrated in the West.[668] Christianity has declined in Europe. Between 2010 and 2015, the number of European Christians who died outnumbered births by nearly 6 million.[669] From 2019 to 2024, the Christian share of the adult population in the United States stayed between 60% and 64%. Even so, it is estimated that fewer than a quarter of the world's Christians will live in its western locations by 2060.[668]
After WWII,decolonization strengthened the indigenization efforts of Christian missionaries, leading to explosive growth in the churches of many former colonies.[670][671][672][673] In 1900, about six and a half percent of the total population of Africa were Christian; Christians numbered just under nine million out of the total population of 140 million. By 1960, this increased to just under 21%: 60 million out of a total population of 286.7 million. By 2005, the percentage of Christians was about half of the continent's population, which remained consistent into 2022.[1][666][674] According toPEW, religion is very important to people in Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Latin America where populations are growing and are likely to continue to grow.[668] This is shifting the geographic center of Christianity to sub-Saharan Africa where more than forty percent of the world's Christians are projected to live by 2060.[668]
Christianity in Southeast and East Asia, especially Korea, grew faster after colonialism.[675][676][677] Rapid expansion began in the 1980s.[678][679] TheCouncil on Foreign Relations reports that the number ofChinese Protestants has grown by an average of 10% annually since 1979, with growth especially prominent among young people.[680][681][682]
With theFall of the Eastern Bloc, Christianity expanded in some Eastern European countries while declining in others.[670][671][673] Catholic countries have displayed secularization, while Orthodox countries have experienced a revival of church participation.[683] Orthodox Christianity made a partial resurgence in the former Soviet Union after 1991 and continues to be an important element of national identity for many citizens there.[668]
In the first quarter of the twenty-first century, Christianity is present in all seven continents and a multitude of different cultures.[684][685] Diverse and pluralist, it embraces over three thousand of the world's languages through "Bible translation, prayer, litergy, hymns, and literature".[1] Most Christians live outside North America and Western Europe; white Christians are a global minority, and slightly over half of worldwide Christians are female.[686][687] In 2017, PEW reported that Christianity is the world's largest religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers, equal to 31.2% of the world's population.[517][688][669]
TheSecond Vatican Council (Vatican II), from 1962-1965, brought about numerous reforms, liturgical changes, promoted the involvement of laypeople, and improved relations with other Christian denominations.[689]
In 1992, the Catholic Church and the Lutheran World Federation signed theJoint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification.[690] Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to re-establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches, but there is no agreement amongst evangelicals.[691][692][693] There is, however, a trend at the local level toward discussion, pulpit exchanges, and shared social action.[694][695] Less than 40% of Orthodox Christians favor reconciliation with the Roman Catholic Church.[696] Orthodox Christians of the Greek, Russian and Balkans branches tend to be more conservative on most issues than Protestants and Catholics.[696]
In the last quarter of the twentieth century, Christianity faced the challenges of secularism and a changing moral climate concerning sexual ethics, gender, and exclusivity, leading to a decline in church attendance in the West.[697][698][699] In a 2018 PEW survey of 27 countries, the majority of nations had more residents claim that the role of religion has decreased over the preceding twenty years than said it had increased. However, people inSoutheast Asian andSub-Saharan African countries reported the opposite trend, suggesting that secularization is a region-specific trend.[668][700]
In 2000, approximately one-quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.[701] By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide, making it the largest branch of Protestantism and fastest-growing Christian movement.[702][703]
The three main branches of Eastern Christianity are the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Communion, and Eastern Catholic Church.[379][375][704] Roughly half of Eastern Orthodox Christians live in formerly Eastern Bloc countries.[696] Its oldest communities in Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Georgia, are decreasing due to forced migration from religious persecution.[705] In 2020, 57 countries had "very high" levels of government restrictions on religion, banning or giving preferential treatment to particular groups, prohibiting conversions, and limiting preaching.[668][706] As of 2022, Christians were harassed in 166 countries, compared to Muslims in 148 and Jews in 90.[707] Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.[708][709]
The multiple wars of the twentieth century brought questions oftheodicy to the forefront.[710] For the first time since the pre-Constantinian era,Christian pacifism became an alternative to war.[711]The Holocaust forced many to realize thatsupersessionism, the belief that Christians had replaced the Jews as God's chosen people, can lead to hatred, ethnocentrism, and racism. Supersessionism was never an official doctrine or universally accepted, and supersessionist texts are increasingly challenged.[712]
For theologians writing after 1945, theology became dependent on context.[713]Liberation theology was combined with thesocial gospel, redefiningsocial justice, and exposing institutionalized sin to aid Latin American poor, but its context limited its application in other environments.[714][715][713] Different historical and socio-political situations producedblack theology andfeminist theology. Combining Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims produced a black theology that spread to the United Kingdom and parts of Africa, confrontingapartheid in South Africa.[716][717] Thefeminist movement of the mid-twentieth century began with an anti-Christian ethos but soon developed an influential feminist theology dedicated to transforming churches and society.[718][719] Feminist theology developed at the local level through movements such as thewomanist theology of African-American women, the"mujerista" theology of Hispanic women, andAsian feminist theology.[720]
In the mid to late 1990s,postcolonial theology emerged globally from multiple sources.[721] It analyzes structures of power and ideology to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.[722]
Modern motivation toward missions has declined in some denominations.[723] The missionary movement of the twenty-first century has become a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network ofNGOs,[724] volunteer doctors,[725] short-term student volunteers,[726] and traditional long-term bilingual, bicultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development.[727][728][729]
^The ascetic life was attractive to large numbers of women because it granted them some control over their destinies,[88][89] offered them escape from marriage and motherhood, and an intellectual life with access to social and economic power.[90][91][88]
^For example, literature says Constantine ordered the destruction of the altar atMamre building a church in its place. Archaeology found Constantine's church in a peripheral sector that left the rest unhindered.[175]Libanius' describes the destruction of theSerapeum using the image of monks descending on the countryside like locusts destroying everything in their path. Archaeology identifies the Serapeum as the only certain case of temple destruction in Egypt.[176][177]
^Paganism's decline was likely contributed to by economic factors such as the decline of urbanism and prosperity in theeconomic crisis of the third century. Economic disruption occurred from themigrations of Germanic peoples in the fourth and fifth centuries that made fewer public funds and private donations available to support expensive pagan festivals and temples.[194][195][196][197][198]
^TheFifth was in 583, and theSixth in 680–681.[248] The seventh council of the church in 787, theSecond Council of Nicaea, was the last one recognized as a general council by the Byzantine Church.[249]
^ The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service, satisfied their material needs, determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions, and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate.[323]
^During this same period, the monkGuido of Arezzo created themusic staff of lines and spaces and named musical notes, making modern music possible.[343]
^ Theparish emerged as one of the fundamental institutions of medieval Europe.[336][352][351] After the eleventh century, education began at home then continued in the parish of one's birth instead of in the monastery.[353][354] The parish priest (secular clergy) celebrated the liturgy, visited the sick, instructed the young, gave aid to the poor, ministered to the dying, and monitored and maintained his parish's income from land, livestock, rents and tithes.[353]
^These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, and empowerment of their own nascent church and state.[458]
^Some claimed that the clergy did little to help the suffering, although the high mortality rate amongst clerics indicates that many continued to care for the sick. Other medieval folk claimed it was the "corrupted" and "vice-ridden" clergy that had caused the many calamities they believed were punishments from God.[467]
^In 1320,Dante Alighieri completed theDivine Comedy, a Christian allegory of reason and divine revelation, sin and ultimate truth, using Catholic doctrine on Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. It became one of the greatest works in literary history.[472]
^Women had no access to education within institutions associated with the church, such as cathedral schools and most universities.[337] The boundary between men and women was absolute in clerical matters. The church often used the participation of women to demonize movements deemed heretical.[542]
^Cameron 2006b, p. 545, "In one of the most momentous precedents of his reign, during Constantine's twentieth-anniversary celebrations in 325, some 250 bishops assembled at Nicaea...".
^Den Heijer 2011, p. 65, "Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali".
^America magazine 2018: "A study of the religious lives of university students in Beijing published in a mainland Chinese academic journalScience and Atheism in 2013 showed Christianity to be the religion that interested students most and was the most active on campuses."
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The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:
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