Thehistory of Central Africa has been divided into its prehistory, its ancient history, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and the post-colonial period, in which the current nations were formed.Central Africa is the central region ofAfrica, bordered byNorth Africa,West Africa,East Africa,Southern Africa, theAtlantic Ocean, and theSahara Desert. Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary Central African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.
The area located at the south of the desert is asteppe, a semi-arid region, called theSahel. It is the ecoclimatic andbiogeographic zone oftransition in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and theSudanian Savanna to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt oftropical savanna that spans theAfrican continent, from the Atlantic Ocean coast in theWest Sudanian savanna to theEthiopian Highlands in theEast Sudanian savanna.
In 15,000 BP, theWest African Monsoon transformed the landscape ofAfrica and began theGreen Sahara period; greater rainfall during the summer season resulted in the growth of humid conditions (e.g.,lakes,wetlands) and the savanna (e.g.,grassland,shrubland) inNorth Africa.[1] Between 5500 BP and 4000 BP, the Green Sahara period ended.[1]
By at least 2,000,000 BP, Central Africa (e.g.,Ishango,Democratic Republic of Congo) was occupied by earlyhominins.[2]
In 90,000 BP, the oldest fishing-related bone tools (e.g., barbedharpoons) of Africa were developed in Central Africa, particularly, Katanda,Central African Republic.[3]
Between 25,000 BP and 20,000 BP, hunter-fisher-gatherer peoples in Central Africa (e.g., Ishango, Democratic Republic of Congo) utilizedfishing tools and natural resources from nearby water sources, as well as may have engaged in and recordedmathematics (e.g.,Ishango bone, which may demonstrate knowledge and use of theduodecimal system,prime numbers,multiplication).[4]
Archaeometallurgicalscientific knowledge and technological development originated in numerous centers of Africa; the centers of origin were located inWest Africa,Central Africa, andEast Africa; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies.[5]Central Africa provides possible evidence of iron working as early as the 3rd millennium BCE.[6] In particular, evidence of iron-smelting in theCentral African Republic andCameroon may date back to 3000 BCE to 2500 BCE.[7] Gbabiri, Central African Republic has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop, with its earliest dates being 896 BCE – 773 BCE and 907 BCE – 796 BCE.[8]
Rock art in Central Africa is generally located between thesavanna and theCongo basinforest.[9] There is rock art found in Cameroon (e.g., Bidzar;Galdi,Adamaoua; Djebel Mela, in Kotto andLengo;Mbomou,Bangassou inBakouma), the Democratic Republic of Congo (e.g.,Bas-Congo; Ngembo; Fwakumbi), in Angola (e.g.,Mbanza Kongo; Calola; Capelo; Bambala Rock Formations in the UpperZambezi Valley), and in Gabon (e.g.,Ogooue, Otoumbi; Oogoue, Kaya Kaya;Lope National Park).[9]
The engravedrock art (e.g., circular marks, concentric circles, cupules, petals) ofBidzar,Cameroon, which was likely engraved using a hammer, is likely no older than the Early Iron Age (2500 BP - 1500 BP).[10]
Between 2500 BP and 1800 BP, amid theIron Age, atLope National Park, Okanda, Gabon, 1680 engraved rock art in total were created withiron implements (e.g.,chisels) byBantu-speaking peoples during theBantu migration.[9] Among the 670 engravings in the western region of Elarmekora and Epona, there are specifically 240 petroglyphs at Elarmekora and 410 petroglyphs at Epona.[9] At Elarmekora, there are hunting depictions ofassegai and animals (e.g., four-legged animals, lizards, a giant-headed insect, tortoise carapace) and a non-hunting depiction of a hoe.[9] At Epona, there are various geometric depictions (e.g., concentric circles), which compose 98% of the overall depictions and may bear the symbolic meaning of cosmic cycles and the flow of time, as well as depictions of five lizards, and a single/double-bladed Bantu throwing knife.[9] In the eastern region of Kongo Boumba, there are 1010petroglyphs.[9] At Kongo Boumba, there are various geometric depictions (e.g., circles, chain-like circles, concentric circles, concentric circle arches, dissected circles, pecked circles, stitched shapes, spirals), 35% of all depictions being chain-like depictions; there are also depictions of snake-like lines, cruciform, lizards, double-bladed throwing knives, small axes, oval-bladed throwing knives with handles and spurs.[9] There are also some realistic animal depictions of lizards, six-legged lizards that appear commonly in African symbolisms, and a dotted hoe layered atop a throwing knife (the most common depiction on rock art in Central Africa) that indicates there were two distinct timeframes that engraving has occurred.[9] At Elarmekora, pottery, with concentric circles like found on the rock art, were found in deposits which dated to 1850 BP, and radiocarbon dating has provided dates between 2300 BP and 1800 BP.[9] At Kongo Boumba, the Okanda ceramic tradition dates from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[9]
Sao civilisation began as early as the 6th century BCE or the 4th century BCE, and by the end of the 1st millennium BCE, their presence was well established around Lake Chad and near theChari River.[11] The city states of the Sao reached their apex at some point between the 9th century CE and 15th CE.[11][12]
Although some scholars estimate that the Sao civilization south of Lake Chad lasted until the 14th century CE or the 15th century CE, the predominant consensus is that it ceased to exist as a separate culture sometime in the 16th century CE subsequently to the expansion of theBornu Empire.[13][14] TheKotoko are the inheritors of the former city states of the Sao.[15]
In the 8th century CE,Wahb ibn Munabbih used Zaghawa to describe the Teda-Tubu group, in the earliest use of the ethnic name.Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi also mentions the Zaghawa in the 9th century CE, as didIbn al-Nadim in hisKitāb al-Fihrist[16] in the 10th century CE. Kanem comes fromanem, meaning south in the Teda and Kanuri languages, and hence a geographic term. During the 1st millennium CE, as theSahara underwentdesiccation, people speaking theKanembu language migrated to Kanem in the south. This group contributed to the formation of theKanuri people. Kanuri traditions state the Zaghawa dynasty led a group of nomads called the Magumi.[17] The area already possessed independent, walledcity-states belonging to theSao culture. Under the leadership of theDuguwa dynasty, the Kanembu would eventually dominate the Sao, but not before adopting many of their customs.[18]
By the end of the 14th century CE, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. War with theSo brought the death of four Mai:Selemma,KureGana,Kure Kura, andMuhammad, all sons of'Abdullāh b. Kadai. Then, war with theBulala resulted in the death of four Mai in succession between 1377 CE and 1387 CE:Dawūd,Uthmān b.Dawūd,Uthmān b. Idris, andBukar Liyāu. Finally, around 1387 CE, the Bulala forcedMai Umar b. Idris to abandonNjimi and move theKanembu people toBornu on the western edge of Lake Chad.[19]: 179 [20]: 92–93, 195–217 [21][22]: 190–191
But even in Bornu, the Sayfawa Dynasty's troubles persisted. During the first three-quarters of the 15th century CE, for example, fifteen Mais occupied the throne. Then, around 1460 CEAli Gazi (1473 CE – 1507 CE) defeated his rivals and began the consolidation of Bornu. He built a fortified capital atNgazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-dayNigeria), the first permanent home a Sayfawamai had enjoyed in a century. So successful was the Sayfawa rejuvenation that by the early 16th century CEMai Idris Katakarmabe (1507 CE – 1529 CE) was able to defeat the Bulala and retakeNjimi, the former capital. The empire's leaders, however, remained at Ngazargamu because its lands were more productive agriculturally and better suited to the raising of cattle. Ali Gaji was the first ruler of the empire to assume the title of Caliph.[23][24]: 159 [25]: 73 [19]: 180–182, 205 [20]: 94, 222–228
The first king of the Kingdom of Kongo, Dya Ntotila, was Nimi a Nzima and Luqueni Luansanze's sonLukeni lua Nimi[26] (c. 1380 CE – 1420 CE). After the death of Nimi a Lukeni, his brother,Mbokani Mavinga, took over the throne and ruled until approximately 1467 CE.[27] The Kilukeni Kanda — or "house", as it was recorded in Portuguese documents — ruled Kongo unopposed until 1567 CE.[28]
According to Shilluk legends, the kingdom was founded in 1490 CE. Its legendary first ruler ("Reth") was the hero known as Nyikang who claimed to be half-crocodile and possessed power over the rain.[29] Nyikang was the son of a king, Okwa, who ruled a country located "far south near a large lake". This may beLake Albert, where theAcholi live. After Okwa's death, Nyikang went to war with his brother Duwadh, the legitimate successor to the throne. Facing defeat, Nyikang left his homeland with his retinue and migrated northeast toWau (near theBahr el Ghazal, "river of gazelles" in Arabic). Here (known by the Shilluk as thePothe Thuro) Nyikang married the daughter of Dimo, the local magician. After a conflict with Dimo Nyikang migrated north (crossing the Bahr el Ghazal) to Acietagwok (a Shilluk village about 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the village of Tonga) around 1550 CE. Nyikang then traveled to Nyilual, an uninhabited region west of the present town ofMalakal.[30] In the end, legends claim that Nyikang vanished in a whirlwind in the middle of a battle.[31]
TheBagirmi carried a tradition that they migrated from far to the east,[32] which is supported by the resemblance of their language to various tribes on theWhite Nile.[33] It is not entirely clear when and by whom Bagirimi kingdom was founded: some king lists trace this event to 1480 CE, when it was supposedly founded by Mbang Abd al-Mahmud Begli, while others deem Mbang Birni Besse responsible, who is said to have founded the kingdom in 1522 CE.[34] He seems to have displaced the earlierBulala,[33] while he also began to build a palace inMassenya, the capital of the state.[34] The fourth king, Abdullah (1568 CE – 1608 CE), adoptedIslam and converted the state into a sultanate, permitting the state to extend their authority over manypagan tribes in the area,[32] including the area's Saras, Gaberi, Somrai, Gulla, Nduka, Nuba, and Sokoro.[33]
Archaeological research shows that the Upemba depression had been occupied continuously since at least the 4th century CE. In the 4th century CE, the region was occupied byiron-working farmers. Over the centuries, the people of the region learned to usenets,harpoons, makedugout canoes, and clearcanals through swamps.[35] They had also learned techniques for drying fish, which were an important source of protein;[35] they began trading the dried fish with the inhabitants of the protein-starvedsavanna.[36]
By the 6th century CE, fishing people lived on lakeshores, worked iron, and tradedpalm oil.[36]
By the 10th century CE, the people of Upemba had diversified their economy,[36] combining fishing, farming and metal-working. Metal-workers relied on traders to bring them thecopper andcharcoal that they needed in smelting. Traders exported salt and iron items, and importedglass beads andcowry shells from the distantIndian Ocean.
By the 14th century CE, the people of the region were organized into various successful farming and trading communities — the gradual process of the communities merging began. Some communities began to merge into larger, more centralized ones; the reason for this is likely because of competition for increasingly limited resources.[35]
The Kingdom of Ndongo was a tributary to theKingdom of Kongo along with various other polities outside of Kongo proper. TheKingdom of Mbundu in the south and theBaKongo in the north were always at odds, but Kongo managed to exact tribute from these states since before the colonization by the Portuguese.
The word Anziku comes from theKiKongo phrase "Anziku Nziku" meaning "to run" referring to inhabitants who leave the interior to protect the border. The term was applied most famously to theBateke, which is why the state is sometimes called the kingdom of Teke or Tiyo. Other groups within the Anziku included the Bampunu and Banzabi.
In the early 17th century CE, the Anziku population controlled the copper mines aroundKongo's northeast border and may have been there specifically as a buffer. When the Anziku groups consolidated to form their own independent kingdom, Kongo proceeded to take over the mines. This process was complete by the 1620s CE. There was, however, fighting between the two states over the region throughout the 17th century CE.
The Kasanje Kingdom, also known as the Jaga Kingdom, (1620 CE – 1910 CE) was a pre-colonialCentral African state. It was formed in 1620 CE by a mercenary band ofImbangala, which had deserted thePortuguese ranks. The state gets its name from the leader of the band, Kasanje, who settled his followers on the upper Kwango River. The Kasanje people were ruled by the Jaga, a king who was elected from among the three clans who founded the kingdom.[37]
The first documentary mention of the Kingdom of Matamba is a reference to it giving tribute to the King ofKongo, thenAfonso I of Kongo, in 1530 CE. In 1535 CE, Afonso subsequently mentioned Matamba as one of the regions over which he ruled as king in his titles. There is no further information on the kingdom's early history and modern oral traditions do not seem to illuminate this at the present state of research. However, it does not seem likely that Kongo had any more than a light and symbolic presence in Matamba, and its rulers were probably quite independent. Matamba undoubtedly had closer relations with its south southeastern neighborNdongo, then a powerful kingdom as well as with Kongo.
During the mid-16th century CE, Matamba was ruled byqueen Njinga, who received missionaries from Kongo, then a Christian kingdom, dispatched by KingDiogo I (1545 CE – 1561 CE). Though this queen received the missionaries and perhaps allowed them to preach, there is no indication that the kingdom converted to Christianity.
Prior to the 1630s CE, Wadai, also known as Burgu to the people ofDarfur, was a pre-IslamicTunjur kingdom, established around 1501 CE.[38]
Initially, the core of what would become the Lunda confederation was a commune called aN'Gaange in the kiLunda (kiyaka-kipunu) language. It was ruled over by a monarch called the Mwane-a- n'Gaange. One of these rulers,Ilunga Tshibinda, came from the nation ofLuba where his brother ruled and married a royal woman from a nation to their south. Their son became the first paramount ruler of the Lunda, creating the title of Mwane-a-Yamvu (c. 1665 CE).
The kingdom began as a conglomeration of several chiefdoms of variousethnic groups with no real central authority. In approximately 1625 CE, an individual from outside the area known as Shyaam a-Mbul a Ngoong usurped the position of one of the area rulers and united all the chiefdoms under his leadership. Tradition states that Shyaam a-Mbul was the adopted son of a Kuba queen. He left the Kuba region to find enlightenment in thePende andKongo kingdoms to the west. After learning all he could from these states, he returned to Kuba to form the empire's political, social and economic foundations.
The kingdom was ultimately conquered in a war with Portugal in 1914 CE, called theKolongongo War.[39]
TheFula first settled in the area in the 14th century CE.[40]
The Yeke Kingdom (also called theGaranganze orGarenganze kingdom) of theGaranganze people inKatanga,DR Congo, was short-lived, existing from about 1856 CE to 1891 CE under one king,Msiri, but it became for a while the most powerful state in south-central Africa, controlling a territory of about half a million square kilometres. The Yeke Kingdom also controlled the onlytrade route across the continent from east to west, since theKalahari Desert andLozi Kingdom in the south and theCongo rainforest in the north blocked alternative routes. It achieved this control through natural resources and force of arms—Msiri traded Katanga'scopper principally, but alsoslaves andivory, forgunpowder and firearms—and by alliances through marriage. The most important alliances were withPortuguese–Angolans in theBenguela area, withTippu Tip in the north and withNyamwezi andSwahili traders in the east, and indirectly with theSultan of Zanzibar who controlled the east coast traders.[41]
Between October 26, 1917 CE and May 18, 1919 CE, René Grauwet found a metalOsirisstatuette, which, as a result of examination, was determined to be created inEgypt (8th century BCE – 1st century CE); it was found on the right side of theLualaba River, nearBukama, in theRepublic of the Congo.[42][43]
Further information in the sections ofArchitecture of Africa:
Further information in the sections ofHistory of science and technology in Africa:
Archaic traits found in human fossils ofWest Africa (e.g.,Iho Eleru fossils, which dates to 13,000 BP) andCentral Africa (e.g.,Ishango fossils, which dates between 25,000 BP and 20,000 BP) may have developed as a result of admixture between archaic humans and modern humans or may be evidence of late-persistingearly modern humans.[44] WhileDenisovan andNeanderthal ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain,archaic human ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.[44]
In 4000 BP, there may have been a population that traversed fromAfrica (e.g.,West Africa or West-Central Africa), through theStrait of Gibraltar, into theIberian Peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northernPortugal, of southernSpain) occurred.[45]
West African hunter-gatherers, in the region of western Central Africa (e.g.,Shum Laka,Cameroon), particularly between 8000 BP and 3000 BP, were found to be related to modernCentral African hunter-gatherers (e.g.,Baka,Bakola,Biaka,Bedzan).[46]
At Kindoki, in theDemocratic Republic of Congo, there were three individuals, dated to theprotohistoric period (230 BP, 150 BP, 230 BP); one carried haplogroupsE1b1a1a1d1a2 (E-CTS99, E-CTS99) andL1c3a1b, another carriedhaplogroup E (E-M96, E-PF1620), and the last carried haplogroupsR1b1 (R-P25 1, R-M415) andL0a1b1a1.[47][48]
At Ngongo Mbata, in theDemocratic Republic of Congo, an individual, dated to theprotohistoric period (220 BP), carried haplogroupL1c3a.[47][48]
At Matangai Turu Northwest, in theDemocratic Republic of Congo, an individual, dated to theIron Age (750 BP), carried an undetermined haplogroup(s).[47][48]
Haplogroup R-V88 may have originated in western Central Africa (e.g.,Equatorial Guinea), and, in the middle of theHolocene, arrived inNorth Africa through population migration.[49]
In 150,000 BP, Africans (e.g.,Central Africans,East Africans) bearinghaplogroup L1 diverged.[50] Between 75,000 BP and 60,000 BP, Africans bearinghaplogroup L3 emerged inEast Africa and eventually migrated into and became present in modernWest Africans, Central Africans, andnon-Africans.[50] Amid the Holocene, including theHolocene Climate Optimum in 8000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L2 spread within West Africa and Africans bearing haplogroup L3 spread within East Africa.[50] As the largest migration since theOut of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred, by West Africans, Central Africans, and East Africans, resulting in migrations intoEurope andAsia; consequently, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe and Asia.[50]
Mitochondrialhaplogroup L1c is strongly associated with pygmies, especially withBambenga groups.[51] L1c prevalence was variously reported as: 100% inBa-Kola, 97% inAka (Ba-Benzélé), and 77% inBiaka,[52] 100% of theBedzan (Tikar), 97% and 100% in theBaka people ofGabon andCameroon, respectively,[53] 97% inBakoya (97%), and 82% inBa-Bongo.[51] Mitochondrial haplogroupsL2a andL0a are prevalent among theBambuti.[51][54]
Genetically,African pygmies have some key difference between them andBantu-speaking peoples.[55][56]
Evidence suggests that, when compared to otherSub-Saharan African populations,African pygmy populations display unusually low levels of expression of the genes encoding forhuman growth hormone andits receptor associated with lowserum levels ofinsulin-like growth factor-1 and short stature.[57]
The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergoadaptation areregulatory DNA, and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate todiet,physiology, andevolutionary pressures from pathogens.[58] ThroughoutSub-Saharan Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation,Duffy blood group, increased rates ofG6PD deficiency,sickle cell disease) tomalaria has been found amongSub-Saharan Africans, which may have initially developed in 7300 BP.[58]Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of theDuffy-null genotype.[59] In therainforests ofCentral Africa, genetic adaptation for non-height-related factors (e.g.,immune traits,reproduction,thyroid function) andshort stature (e.g., EHB1 and PRDM5 –bone synthesis; OBSCN and COX10 –muscular development;HESX1 and ASB14 –pituitary gland's growth hormone production/secretion) has been found amongrainforest hunter-gatherers.[58]