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Thehistory ofCatholic theology, or the beliefs and teachings of theCatholic Church, began with 1st-centuryJudaism and the teachings ofJesus, who claimed to be theJewish Messiah. These roots further developed in the period ofEarly Christianity, with theChurch Fathers andEcumenical councils outlining concepts such as thetrinity. In theMiddle ages, Catholic theology was known asscholasticism. Following theProtestant Reformation in the 16th century, the Catholic Church launched theCounter-Reformation, which affirmed some aspects of Catholic theology while reforming or standardizing some traditions. Modern-day issues such asabortion, euthanasia, and birth control have been condemned since theSecond Vatican Council in the 1960s.
TheCatholic Church believes that Catholicism originated from Jesus andhis apostles.[1] Christianity started off as a movement within Judaism that claimed that Jesus fulfilled the promise God made toAbraham,Isaac, andJacob, known asThe Patriarchs.The Gospel also sought to be a fulfillment and correction of the philosophies ofAncient Greek philosophy andAncient Roman philosophy.[2]Christian apologists from the second century, such asJustin Martyr,Theophilus, andAthenagoras also attempted to conciliate Greek philosophy.[3] Jesus affirmed theGod of Abraham, and the event ofthe Exodus.[4]
The Gospels ofMatthew andLuke state thatMary was aVirgin when she gave birth to Jesus, and that she was conceived with theholy spirit.[5]
Jesus was referred to asthe Christ, which is Greek forMessiah oranointed one. His followers believed that he was from theDavidic line[6] and theMessiah in Judaism.[7]
Matthew 16:18 of theNew Testament records Jesus saying toPeter, one of the apostles:
This, according to Catholic theology, made Peter the firstpope.[9]
Jesus taught of theKingdom of God, and that you must accept him in order to enter it. He taught that devotion to God comes before everything else, including your family and yourself. He condemned hatred,lust, murder,adultery, and divorce.[10]
Between 29 and 33 AD,Jesus was crucified. His followers then claimed thathe rose from the dead.[11]
Paul the Apostle has occasionally been referred to as the firstChristian theologian, due to his interpretation of the life and teachings of Jesus. He referred to Jesus as theSon of God, and that he died for oursins.[12]
Divisions within the Church had always existed. During the first century of the Church, people were debating whethergentiles could become Christian. By the end of that century, debates occurred over this inAntioch whereIgnatius wasthe Bishop. Others claimed that Jesus was not truly a human, but a spirit, and did not actually die. Ignatius countered this by stating that if he did not die, then the resurrection could not have happened.[13] There were controversial movements such asGnosticism that rose and threatened to split the Church. These movements were condemned by the Church Fathers, such asIrenaeus in hisAgainst Heresies.[14][15]
The Gnostics believed that there were two gods: one from the old testament, that is inferior, and a benevolent god that was shown through Christ. Irenaeus countered using both the Old Testament (Deuteronomy 5:8) and the New Testament (1 Corinthians 8:4), which state that there is only one God who created everything. He also compared Gnosticism to cherry-picking parts of theIliad byHomer to create an entirely different message from the one intended. As an example, the Gnostics used the phrase "the God of this world" (Corinthians 4:4) as proof of the existence of a lesser god, when in fact, the phrase was talking aboutSatan.[16]
Ignatius andPapias, among others, believed oral tradition was more important than the written books of the Bible. Papias wrote "information from the books would not help me as much as the word of a living and surviving voice". In the upcoming decades, as oral tradition became more difficult, the books started to get more widespread acceptance.[17]
Texts in writing became important for Christianity. Theeucharist started with reading from the gospels and theSeptuagint, the Greek translation of theOld Testament. There was no unanimous consensus for the Biblical cannon back then. Decisions for what books to use were often made based on tradition: books that have been more common and been in use for longer periods of time became more likely to be featured. The process for deciding what books to use was gradual, and some books were questioned, such as2 Peter,James,Revelation, andHebrews.[18]
Origen, a Church father, developed ideas that later became the concept ofpurgatory. He believed that parts of the Bible were metaphorical and not always literal. However, his teachings were condemned in the sixth century.[19]
The first four ecumenical councils all focused on Christ, and things such as his relationship tothe Father andthe relationship between his humanity and divinity.[20]
Constantine, theRoman Emperor whoconverted to Christianity in the 310s, summoned theFirst Council of Nicaea. .[20] The council created theNicene creed, which states the following:
Augustine was a Christian theologian whose "distinctive theological style shaped Latin Christianity in a way surpassed only by Scripture itself." He often used the teachings ofPlato, and modern Catholicism is heavily inspired by him. He defendedpredestination.[22] Augustine taught that just as the trinity has three parts to it, love has three parts as well: the person that loves, the person that is being loved, and the act of love itself.[23] He, along with Paul andPlato, believed a true philosopher is a lover of God, because truewisdom is the same as God. Augustine used this to explain that the true philosophy and the true religion are the same. He heavily criticized what he called "the philosophy of this world" -- referring toPaganism,stoicism, andPlatonism; he accuses them ofpride, of trying to cultivate happiness through their own merits, and for rejecting Jesus and Christianity. He also developed the concept ofjust war theory. Augustine's teachings were unanimously accepted, not just in Catholicism, but in all of Western Christianity, until the nineteenth century.[24]
The Scholastics combinedChristian dogma,Augustinianism, andAristotelianism. One of the most influential scholastics wasThomas Aquinas, who is recognized by the Catholic Church as the leading theologian. His most significant works areSumma theologica andSumma contra Gentiles,[25] the former being a summary of theology.[26]
The prevalence of torture and executions during this era has been exaggerated due topropaganda produced during therenaissance and from figures such asVoltaire andBeccaria. Most criminals who were caught had received light and merciful punishment. Fines, short-term jail sentences, orexiles were far more likely to be given as a punishment than torture and execution.[27]
Almost nobody in this time period, as well as before or after it,believed that the earth was flat.[28]
Modern philosophers, starting from theRenaissance, often hated scholasticism.Hegel wrote that he would "put on seven-league boots" to skip the Middle Ages, and that he could "cry land like the sailor" whenDescartes came along. However, during theRomantic era, people were very fond of scholasticism and the Middle Ages.[29]
Catholics often combined science and theology.Galileo,Copernicus,Galvani, andPasteur were all devout Catholics.John Heilbron stated that the Catholic Church arguably gave more financial aid to astronomy than all other institutions during the Middle Ages and the centuries after. No known scientist has ever been executed by the Catholic Church due to their scientific beliefs.[30]
In the 16th and early 17th centuries, the Catholic Church launched theCounter-Reformation in opposition to the Protestant reformation. In response to criticisms fromProtestants, the Catholic Church got rid of corruption and ambiguous areas in their theology.[31]
TheFirst Vatican council took place underPius IX from 1869 to 1870, and created the notion ofpapal infallibility.[32]
TheSecond Vatican Council is one of the most important events in the history of Catholicism. It occurred in 1962 - 1965, and was announced byPope John XXIII. This was the first group that women were allowed to attend. The council condemned abortion, euthanasia, and birth control.Pope Leo XIV, elected in 2025, affirmed the importance of this council.[33]
Today, the Catholic Church opposes sex change,gender theory,surrogacy, abortion, and euthanasia, while calling out dangers in poverty, migration, and human trafficking.[34]. Catholicism supports the trinity, but that there is still notion that there is onlyone God,[35] who isomnipotent, beyondthe universe, and created human beings in his image, meaning that all human beings have a special relationship with him, and that Catholics should emphasize treating other human beings with love and forgiveness[36]. It teaches that Jesus was both fully human and fully divine,[37] and that after he hadthe last supper, that he wasbetrayed byJudas Iscariot, put ontrial by theSanhedrin for alleged blasphemy, was crucified underPontius Pilate, rose from the dead, andascended into heaven; signaling not just his strength, but that his disciples should not fear death.[38] It teaches that after we die, we either go to purgatory followed byheaven, or that we go toHell.[39]
