Thehistory ofBrussels, thecapital city of Belgium and theEuropean Union, stretches back over a millennium. In that time, it has developed into one of Europe's most importantpolitical andcultural centres. The city has enduredforeign occupation,religious conflict,bombardment,revolution, andwaves of urban transformation.
The first known inhabitants lived on the edges of what is now theBrussels-Capital Region, avoiding the marshy valley of theSenne.Polishedsilex from theMesolithic have been found in theNekkersgat.[1] During the lateNeolithic, settlements from theMichelsberg culture were established in theSonian Forest.[2][3] Farmers settled on cleared land during theBronze andIron Ages, and from the 5th to the 1st century BCE, theLa Tène culture maintained a settlement on theChamp Saint-Anne/Sint-Annaveld inAnderlecht.[2] Around 1000–800 BCE,Celtic tribes settled in the region.[4]
In theRoman period, villas were established on both banks of the Senne in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, including sites inStalle,[1]Laeken,[4] Jette,[5] and Anderlecht, the latter built on the site of the former Neolithic settlement on theChamp Saint-Anne.[2][6] Burial mounds from this era or earlier have also been identified.
By the 4th–6th centuries CE,Frankish tribes occupied the territories between theMeuse andScheldt rivers.[4] Evidence of their presence in the Brussels area includes a Frankish tomb on theZeecrabbeweg[1] and a Merovingian cemetery with over three hundred graves on theChamp Saint-Anne, dating to 500–700 CE.[2] By this period, small agricultural hamlets had arisen on the hills near the Senne.[7]
The earliest history of Brussels remains somewhat unclear. In 580, SaintGaugericus builta chapel [nl;fr] onan island in the Senne, laying the origin of the settlement which is to become Brussels. By 843, the region became part ofLotharingia following the signing of theTreaty of Verdun.[4] In 870, the first mention of theCounty of Brussels [nl;fr] was made in theTreaty of Meerssen. By 959, the city became part ofLower Lotharingia.[4] Between 977 and 979, a castrum was constructed onSaint Gaugericus Island, and in 979,Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, transferred the relics of SaintGudula to the chapel built by Saint Gaugericus, marking the city's official founding.[4]
Current research suggests that Brussels developed gradually from an agricultural community that expanded rapidly from the 8th century. The traditional narrative that the city arose around a castrum established by Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, remains based on later and less reliable sources.[7]
The first reliable mention of Brussels dates from around 1015–1020, describing the settlement as aportus, a loading and unloading site on the Senne, likely associated with nearby dwellings whose locations remain uncertain. Soon after, a princely authority, theCounts of Leuven, appears to have established a presence, drawn by the vitality of the port and surrounding countryside. Medieval documents indicate that local farmers were required to transport grain to Brussels for shipment, reflecting its early role in regional trade. A north–south route connected Brussels to the fertile grain-producing regions of southernBrabant andHainaut, integrating the settlement into broader east–west trade flows betweenFlanders and theRhineland. Within the city, this route later became known as theSteenweg, including streets such as theRue de Namur/Naamsestraat,Rue du Marché aux Herbes/Grasmarkt, andRue du Marché aux Poulets/Kiekenmarkt, while routes outside the city included theChaussée d'Ixelles/Elsensesteenweg andChaussée de Gand/Gentsesteenweg.[7]
By the 11th–12th centuries, Brussels consisted of a loose network of residential centres, a pattern described as the ‘polynuclear’ character of medieval towns. Key early cores included the portus, possibly linked toSt. Gaugericus Church [nl;fr], theCoudenberg lordship, and the area around Saint Michael’s Church, where a chapter of secular canons was founded in the mid-11th century. Archaeological evidence also points to other small settlements, such as near the presentPlace de la Vieille Halle aux Blés/Oud Korenhuis, and planned districts like the early 12th-century textile neighbourhood around theChapel Church, today’sMarollen district. Additional development occurred nearSt. Nicholas Church andSt. Catherine Chapel along theSteenweg. From the outset, the city displayed adichotomy still visible today: trade and municipal authority in the valley, and princely residences on the surrounding hills. The growth of Brussels resulted from the interaction and competition among these various settlements, transforming a group of villages into a coherent urban agglomeration.[7]
Between 1209 and 1406, Brussels evolved into a major political, economic, and cultural centre. The early 13th century saw the establishment of key religious and civic institutions: the Grand Royal and Noble Oath of the Crossbowmen of Our Lady of Sablon,[8][9] and the planting of theMeyboom.[10] The city gained financial independence through a revenue account and received acharter of rights [nl] the same year.[11] Religious life flourished with theRecollectsconvent,[12] theGreat Beguinage,[13] theBeguinage of Anderlecht,La Cambre Abbey, theConvent of Boetendael [nl;fr],[1] and thePriory of Val-Duchesse [nl;fr].
Under DukeJohn the Victorious, Brussels became the capital of theDuchy of Brabant, and civic administration expanded with theDrapery Court,Wise Council [nl],[4] and recognition of the cloth guild. Restrictions on artisans and taxation, including duties on cranes and beer, were established,[4] andMolenbeek joined theCoop of Brussels [nl;fr].[14] The 14th century was marked by growth, conflict, and social change:Schaerbeek,Etterbeek, Laeken, Anderlecht,Obbrussel, andForest[4] joined the Coop, while theBrussels Revolt [nl] and subsequent suppression of craftsmen shaped governance.[4][15] TheSeven Noble Houses were attested,[4][15][16] and guilds such asSaint Luke [nl],Four Crowned [nl], andBrewers' Guild [nl] gained recognition.[17][18]
Religious and civic life continued with theChurch of Our Lady of Victories of the Sablon,[19]Rouge Cloître Abbey,[4] theOmmegang,[20] andJohn of Ruusbroec becoming parish priest at St. Michael and St. Gudula. The city endured crises including theGreat Famine, andBlack Death.[4] Revolts and conflicts included thecrafts uprising [nl],[21] theBattle of Scheut [nl;fr], and theSacrament of Miracle.Everard t’Serclaes liberated the city in 1356, later suffering mutilation and death in 1388, prompting a military expedition toGaasbeek Castle.[22] Civic governance advanced asGeert Pipenpoy became the city’s first mayor in 1380, theHalle Gate was built, theTown Hall construction began, and theCourt of Auditors [nl;fr] was established. Population reached around 20,000 by 1400, despite destructive fires in 1405–1406.[4]
During the 15th century, Brussels became a significant centre underBurgundian rule, marked by political change, civic development, and cultural flourishing. In 1406,Anthony the Great Bastard made hisJoyous Entry into the city,[4][23] and by 1407 a fire brigade was organised, though water supply remained limited.[24] The early 15th century saw social and religious movements such as the prosecution of theHomines Intelligentiae and the settlement of theBrethren of the Common Life [nl]. Political tensions between DukeJohn IV and theStates of Brabant led to the guilds’ participation in city governance alongside the Seven Noble Houses in 1421, as part of early democratic reforms.[25]
Brussels became part of theBurgundian State in 1430 under DukePhilip the Good.[26] Cultural and architectural developments includedRogier van der Weyden’s appointment as city artist,[4] the construction and completion of the Town Hall,[4][27] the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament of the Miracle, theCharterhouse of Scheut [nl;fr], and the foundation ofChapel of Boondael [nl;fr]. Civic life continued to evolve with the establishment of printing presses,[28][29]chambers of rhetoric such asDe Corenbloem [fr], and theRoyal Oath of St. Michael and St. Gudula or the Fencers of Brussels [fr]. Political turbulence continued underCharles the Bold and theHabsburgs, including Joyous Entries,[30] relocation of the Chamber of Accounts toMechelen, and the granting of theGreat Privilege by DuchessMary of Burgundy,[31] restoring key liberties to the city and theStates General.
From the late 15th to the mid-16th century, Brussels continued to develop politically, culturally, and economically under Habsburg influence. Key civic and cultural institutions flourished: theDe Lelie [fr][32] andDe Violette [fr][33] chambers of rhetoric, and theBrotherhood of Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows [nl]. The city was embroiled in theFlemish Revolt, including thePeace of Bruges,[34] the siege ofBeersel Castle,[35] and thePeace of Danebroek [nl], reflecting the city’s turbulent political climate.[34]
Under EmperorCharles V, Brussels became the official capital of the Netherlands,[31] hosting the permanent court and major events such as the Joyous Entry of Charles V and Philip the Prudent. The period saw significant cultural and religious developments: the establishment of postal services,[36]the Miracle of 1511, the publication ofDe Moluccis Insulis, and the rise ofLutheran,Munsterite, andMennonite communities.[37] Civic improvements included the construction of theKing's House, theGranvelle Palace,[38][39] and theWillebroek Canal,[40] alongside municipal codification of liberties[41] and social welfare reforms such as theSupreme Charity [fr].[40] Notable figures includedErasmus,Andreas Vesalius, andMargaretha von Waldeck, while events like executions for heresy underscored the era’s religious tensions.[37]
Between 1556 and 1711, Brussels was a focal point of religious, political, and cultural change under Spanish rule. The city was deeply affected by theDutch Revolt, including thePetition of the Nobles [nl], iconoclastic attacks, and the arrival of theDuke of Alba,[4] which led to the executions of prominent figures such as the Counts ofEgmont andHorn. Periods ofCalvinist governance, such as theCalvinist Republic of Brussels [nl;fr], alternated with Spanish military control, including the siege by theArmy of Flanders.[4][42] Civic improvements continued with theWillebroek Canal,[43] theAmigo Prison [nl], and theSimpelhuys,[44] alongside notable religious and judicial events like witch trials and heresy executions, includingJosyne van Beethoven.[45]
Brussels also became a centre of social and cultural activity, with the establishment of colleges, convents, charitable institutions, and guilds. Iconic developments included the recasting ofManneken Pis in bronze,[46] construction of theatres andfortifications, and the creation of brotherhoods and civic charities throughout the 17th century. The city faced plagues (1575, 1634),[4][47] fires, and military attacks, most devastatingly theFrench bombardment of 1695, but it rebuilt itsGrand-Place and continued to flourish,[4] culminating in the opening of theTheatre of La Monnaie and theRoyal Academy of Fine Arts.[4]
In the 18th century, Brussels experienced both cultural development and political turbulence. In April 1717,Peter the Great visited the city,[4][48] and later that year the Theatre of La Monnaie was sold to Jean-Baptiste Meeûs.[49] In September 1719,François Anneessens was executed on the Grand-Place, and in March 1724 the Senne flooded, leaving the lower town under water.[50] ThePalace of Coudenberg was destroyed by fire in February 1731,[4][51] and in 1733 new burial regulations were introduced to limit the spread of disease.[52] PrinceCharles Alexander of Lorraine entered Brussels in 1744, the year before English troops stole the Manneken Pis statue, later returned by the residents ofGeraardsbergen.[53]
The city was besieged and captured by French forces in early 1746 during theWar of the Austrian Succession, though it was returned to Austria under theTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1749. In the second half of the century, urban development accelerated:Brussels Park, theRue Royale/Koningsstraat,[54] thePlace des Martyrs/Martelaarsplein,[4] and thePlace Royale/Koningsplein were laid out, while the Palace of the Council of Brabant (today’sPalace of the Nation), theRoyal Palace, and thePalace of Laeken (then Schonenberg) were constructed. Several cultural institutions also emerged, including theImperial and Royal Academy,[55] theTheresian College [fr],[56][57] and theRoyal Park Theatre.[58]
Social and political unrest grew towards the century’s end. EmperorJoseph II’s reforms, including the dismantling of the city’s fortifications and the abolition of provincial privileges, provoked resistance.[59] Street clashes withAustrian troops in 1787–88 helped trigger theBrabant Revolution, during which Brussels briefly became the capital of theUnited Belgian States.[60] The Austrians soon regained control, but the city was again occupied byFrench troops in 1792,[4][61] lost, and retaken in 1794 following theBattle of Fleurus.[61] In 1795, Brussels was formally annexed by France and became the capital of thedepartment of the Dyle.[61] Under French administration, guilds and abbeys were suppressed,[62] churches demolished, and street names secularised,[10] while new institutions such as the civil registry[10] and theÉcole centrale du département de la Dyle [nl;fr] were established. By 1800, Brussels counted over 66,000 inhabitants[4] and had founded its first professionalFire Brigade [nl;fr].
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