Part ofa series on the |
|---|
| History ofBengal |
 |
Ancient kingdoms |
Modern period
|
Thehistory of Bengal is intertwined with the history of the broaderIndian subcontinent and the surrounding regions ofSouth Asia andSoutheast Asia. It includes modern-dayBangladesh and theIndian states ofWest Bengal andAssam'sKarimganj district, located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, at theapex of theBay of Bengal and dominated by thefertileGanges delta. The region was known to theancient Greeks andRomans asGangaridai, a powerful kingdom whose war elephant forces led the withdrawal ofAlexander the Great from India. Some historians have identified Gangaridai with other parts of India. TheGanges and theBrahmaputrarivers act as a geographic marker of the region, but also connects the region to the broader Indian subcontinent.[1] Bengal, at times, has played an important role in thehistory of the Indian subcontinent.
The area's early history featured a succession ofIndian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle betweenHinduism andBuddhism for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several majorJanapadas (kingdoms), while the earliest cities date back to theVedic period. Athalassocracy and anentrepôt of the historicSilk Road,[1] ancient Bengal had strong trade links withPersia,Arabia and the Mediterranean that focused on its lucrative cottonmuslin textiles.[2] The region was a part of several ancient pan-Indian empires, including theMauryans andGuptas. It was also a bastion of regional kingdoms. The citadel ofGauda served as capital of theGauda Kingdom, the BuddhistPala Empire (eighth to 11th century), the HinduSena Empire (11th–12th century) and the HinduDeva Empire (12th-13th century). This era saw the development ofBengali language,script,literature,music,art andarchitecture.
TheMuslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent absorbed Bengal into the medieval Islamic andPersianate worlds.[3] Between the 1204 and 1352, Bengal was a province of theDelhi Sultanate.[4] This era saw the introduction of thetaka as monetary currency, which has endured into the modern era. An independentBengal Sultanate was formed in 1346 and ruled the region for two centuries, during whichIslam was the state religion.[5][6] The ruling elite also turned Bengal into the easternmost haven ofIndo-Persian culture.[3] The Sultans exerted influence in theArakan region of Southeast Asia, where Buddhist kings copied the sultanate's governance, currency and fashion. A relationship withMing China flourished under the sultanate.[7]
The Bengal Sultanate was notable for its Hindu aristocracy, including the rise ofRaja Ganesha and his sonJalaluddin Muhammad Shah as usurpers. Hindus served in the royal administration as prime ministers and poets. Under the patronage of Sultans likeAlauddin Hussain Shah, Bengali literature began replacing the strong influence of Sanskrit in the region. Hinduprincipalities included theKingdom of Mallabhum,Kingdom of Bhurshut andKingdom of Tripura; and the realm of powerful HinduRajas such asPratapaditya,Kedar Ray andRaja Sitaram Ray.[8]
Following the decline of the sultanate, Bengal came under the suzerainty of theMughal Empire, as its wealthiest province. Under the Mughals,Bengal Subah rose to global prominence in industries such astextile manufacturing andshipbuilding,[9] its economy in the 18th century exceeding in size any ofEurope's empires.[10] This growth of manufacturing has been seen as a form ofproto-industrialization, similar to that in western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.[citation needed] Bengal's capitalDhaka is said to have contained over a million people.[11]
The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire led to quasi-independent states under theNawabs of Bengal, subsequent to theMaratha invasions of Bengal, and finally the conquest by theBritish East India Company.
The East India Company took control of the region from the late 18th century. The company consolidated their hold on the region following the battles ofBattle of Plassey in 1757 andBattle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took complete control of the region. Capital amassed from Bengal by the East India Company was invested in various industries such astextile manufacturing inGreat Britain during the initial stages of theIndustrial Revolution.[12][13][14][15] Company policies in Bengal also led to thedeindustrialization of the Bengali textile industry during Company rule.[12][14]Kolkata (or Calcutta) served for many years as the capital ofBritish controlled territories in India. The early and prolonged exposure to the British colonial administration resulted in the expansion of Western-style education, culminating in development of science, institutional education, and social reforms in the region, including what became known as theBengali Renaissance. A hotbed of theIndian independence movement through the early 20th century,Bengal was partitioned duringIndia's independence in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities: West Bengal—a state of India—andEast Bengal—a part of the newly createdDominion of Pakistan that later became the independent nation ofBangladesh in 1971.
The exact origin of the wordBangla is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribeBang/Banga that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE.[16][17] Other accounts speculate that the name is derived fromVenga (Bôngo), which came from theAustroasiatic word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. According to theMahabharata, thePuranas and theHarivamsha, Vanga was one of the adopted sons of King Vali who founded theVanga Kingdom. The earliest reference to "Vangala" (Bangala) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 CE) ofRashtrakutaGovinda III which speak ofDharmapala as the king of "Vangala". The records ofRajendra Chola I of theChola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, use the termVangaladesa.[18][19][20]
The termBangalah is one of the precursors to the modern termsBengal andBangla.[21][22][23]Bangalah was the most widely used term for Bengal during the medieval and early modern periods. TheSultan of Bengal was styled as theShah of Bangalah. The Mughal province of Bengal was termedSubah-i-Bangalah.An interesting theory of the origin of the name is provided byAbu'l-Fazl in hisAin-i-Akbari. According to him, "[T]he original name of Bengal was Bung, and the suffix"al" came to be added to it from the fact that the ancient rajahs of this land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al". From this suffix added to the Bung, the name Bengal arose and gained currency".[24]
.jpg)
Stone Age tools found in the region indicate human habitation for over 20,000 years.[25] Remnants ofCopper Age settlements, including pit dwellings, date back 4,000 years.[25] Bengal was settled byIndo-Aryans,Tibeto-Burmans,Dravidians andAustroasiatics in consecutive waves of migration.[16][25]Archaeological evidence confirms that by the second millennium BCE, the Bengal delta was inhabited by rice-cultivating communities, with people living in systemically-aligned housing and producing pottery.[26] Rivers such as theGanges andBrahmaputra were used for transport while maritime trade flourished in the Bay of Bengal.[26]
TheIron Age saw the development ofcoinage, metal weapons, agriculture andirrigation.[26] Large urban settlements formed in the middle of thefirst millennium BCE,[27] when theNorthern Black Polished Ware culture dominated the northern part of Indian subcontinent.[28]Alexander Cunningham, the founder of theArchaeological Survey of India, identified the archaeological site ofMahasthangarh as the capital of thePundra Kingdom mentioned in theRigveda.[29][30]
The ancient Bengal region features prominently in legendary history of India, Sri Lanka, Siam, Indonesia, Cambodia, Burma, Nepal, Tibet, China and Malaya. According to the Indian epicMahabharata, the Vanga Kingdom was located in Bengal. Vanga was described as a thalassocracy with colonies in Southeast Asia. According to Sri Lankan history, the first king of Sri Lanka wasPrince Vijaya who led a fleet from India to conquer the island ofLanka. Prince Vijaya's ancestral home was Bengal.[31]
In theGreco-Roman world, accounts of theGangaridai Kingdom are considered by historians to have referred to Bengal. At the time ofAlexander the Great's invasion of India, the collective might of theGangaridai/Nanda Empire deterred the Greek army. The Gangaridai army was stated to have awar elephant cavalry of 6000 elephants.[32] The archaeological sites ofWari-Bateshwar andChandraketugarh are linked to the Gangaridai kingdom.InPtolemy's world map, the emporium of Sounagoura (Sonargaon) was located in Bengal.[33] Roman geographers also noted the existence of a largenatural harbour in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the present-dayChittagong region.[34]
Ancient Bengal was often divided between various kingdoms inVedic Period. At times, the region was unified into a single realm; while it was also ruled by pan-Indian empires.
.png)
.png)
The following table lists the geopolitical divisions of ancient Bengal. The table includes a list of corresponding modern regions, which formed the core areas of the geopolitical units. The territories of the geopolitical divisions expanded and receded through the centuries.
| Ancient region | Modern region |
|---|---|
| Pundravardhana | Rajshahi Division andRangpur Division in Bangladesh;Malda division ofWest Bengal in India |
| Vanga | Dhaka Division andBarisal Division in Bangladesh |
| Tirabhukti | Mithila area of India and Nepal |
| Suhma | Burdwan division, Medinipur division and Presidency division of West Bengal in India |
| Radha | Location unclear; probable location in southern West Bengal and parts of Jharkhand of India |
| Samatata | Dhaka Division, Barisal Division andChittagong Division in Bangladesh |
| Harikela | Sylhet Division, Chittagong Division, Dhaka Division and Barisal Division in Bangladesh |
| Pragjyotisha | Karimganj district ofBarak Valley region ofAssam in India; Sylhet Division and Dhaka Division in Bangladesh |
The Nanda empire underMahapadma Nanda extended to its peak. Mahapadma Nanda started imperial conquest ofBharatvarsh. He invaded and defeated local kingdoms of Bengal.[35] The Nanda empire appears to have stretched from present-dayPunjab in the west toOdisha andBengal in the east.[36]According to the Jain tradition, the Nanda minister subjugated the entire country up to the coastal areas.[37]
TheMauryan Empire unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state for the first time and was one of the largest empires in subcontinental history.[38] The empire was established byChandragupta Maurya. Under Mauryan rule, the economic system benefited from the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The reign ofAshoka ushered an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist missionaries to various parts of Asia.[39] The Mauryans built theGrand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[40] A passage from Pliny suggests that the "Palibothri" or the rulers ofPataliputra, held dominion over the entire region along theGanges River. Chinese travelerHiuen Tsang observed stupas attributed to Ashoka in various locations, includingTamralipti andKarnasuvarna in West Bengal,Samataṭa in East Bengal, andPundravardhana in North Bengal (currently inBangladesh), indicating the widespread influence of the Mauryan Empire during Ashoka's reign.[41] During Ashoka's time, Tamralipta served as the principal port of the Gupta Empire, facilitating communication betweenCeylon (modern Sri Lanka) and Magadha.Ashoka is known to have visited Bengal, and he likely traveled to Tamralipta on at least one occasion. According to the Ceylonese chronicle, the Mahavamsa, Ashoka visited Tamralipta whenMahendra andSanghamitta embarked on their voyage toSinhala, carrying a holy branch of theBodhi tree. This event occurred during the reign of the pious KingDevanampriya Tissa of Ceylon.[42]
TheMahasthangarh inscription is an important piece of evidence that supports the presence of Mauryan rule in Bengal. Mahasthangarh, located in present-dayBogra District in Bangladesh, was an ancient city known as Pundranagara. The site holds great historical significance as one of the earliest urban centers in Bengal. The inscription, discovered at Mahasthangarh, is written inBrahmi script, which was widely used during the Mauryan period.[44] The Mauryans, had their capital in Pāțaliputra, created two major bases in theeast-Mahasthan andBangarh.[45]
Ancient Bengal was often ruled by dynasties based in theMagadha region, such as theShunga dynasty andKanva dynasty.
TheGupta Empire is regarded as agolden age in subcontinental history. It was marked by extensive scientific and cultural advancements that crystallised the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.[46] The Hindu numeral system, a positional numeral system, originated during Gupta rule and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system.[47] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in the empire.[48]
Bengal was an important province of theGupta Empire. The discovery of Gupta era coins acrossBengal point to a monetised economy.[49]
KingShashanka is considered by some scholars to be the pioneering king of a unified Bengali state. Shashanka established a kingdom in the citadel of Gauda. His reign lasted between 590 and 625. TheBengali calendar traces its origin to Shashanka's reign.
TheVarman dynasty ofKamarupa ruled parts ofNorth Bengal and the Sylhet region. The area was a melting pot of theBengali-Assamese languages.
TheKhadga dynasty was a Buddhist dynasty of eastern Bengal. One of the legacies of the dynasty is its gold coinage inscribed with the names of rulers such as Rajabhata.
ThePala Empire (750–1120 CE) was a Bengali empire and the last Buddhist imperial power on the Indian subcontinent. The Palas were followers of theMahayana andVajrayana schools of Buddhism.Gopala I (750–770) was its first ruler. He came to power in 750 through an election by chieftains inGauḍa. Gopala reigned from about 750–770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal.
The Pala dynasty lasted for four centuries and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the importantancient higher-learning institutions ofNalanda andVikramashila. TheSomapura Mahavihara built byEmperor Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist monastery in the Indian subcontinent.
The empire reached its peak under Emperor Dharmapala (770–810) andDevapala (810–850). Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. According to Pala copperplate inscriptions, his successor Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, invade theKamarupa Kingdom of Assam, shattered the pride of theHuna people and humbled the lords ofGurjara-Pratihara and theRashtrakuta dynasty.
TheChandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal andArakan between the 10t CE.[50] The dynasty was powerful enough to withstand the Pala Empire to the northwest. The Chandra kingdom covered theHarikela region, which was known as the Kingdom of Ruhmi toArab traders.[51] The dynasty's realm was a bridge between India and Southeast Asia. During this period, the port ofChittagong developed banking and shipping industries.[52] The last ruler of the Chandra Dynasty,Govindachandra, was defeated by the south Indian Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the maritime Chola dynasty in the 11th century.[53]
The Pala dynasty was replaced by the resurgent HinduSena dynasty which hailed from south India; they and their feudatories are referred to in history books as the "Kannada kings". In contrast to the Pala dynasty who championed Buddhism, the Sena dynasty were staunchly Hindu. They brought about a revival of Hinduism and cultivatedSanskrit literature in eastern India. They succeeded in bringing Bengal under one ruler during the 12th century.Vijaya Sena, second ruler of the dynasty, defeated the last Pala emperor,Madanapala, and established his reign formally.Ballala Sena, third ruler of the dynasty, was a scholar and philosopher king. He is said to have invited Brahmins from both south India and north India to settle in Bengal, and aid the resurgence of Hinduism in his kingdom. He married aWestern Chalukya princess and concentrated on building his empire eastwards, establishing his rule over nearly all of Bengal and large areas of lower Assam. Ballala Sena madeNabadwip his capital.[54]
The fourth Sena king,Lakshmana Sena, son of Ballala Sena, was the greatest king of his line. He expanded the empire beyond Bengal intoBihar, Assam, Odisha and likelyVaranasi. Lakshmana was later defeated by the nomadic Turkic Muslims and fled to eastern Bengal, where he ruled few more years. It is proposed by some Bengali authors thatJayadeva, the famous Sanskrit poet and author ofGita Govinda, was one of thePancharatnas or "five Gems" of the court of Lakshmana Sena.
TheDeva dynasty was a Hindu dynasty of medieval Bengal that ruled over eastern Bengal after the collapse of Sena Empire. The capital of this dynasty wasBikrampur in present-dayMunshiganj District of Bangladesh. The inscriptional evidences show that his kingdom was extended up to the present-dayComilla–Noakhali–Chittagong region. A later ruler of the dynastyAriraja-Danuja-Madhava Dasharatha-Deva extended his kingdom to cover much of East Bengal.[55] The Deva dynasty endured after Muslim conquests but eventually died out.
The Ghurid invasion of Bengal in 1202 was a military campaign of theGhurid dynasty led byMuhammad Bhakhtiyar Khalji against theSena dynasty. Bakhtiyar Khalji emerged victorious in the campaign and subsequently annexedNabadwip, a significant portion of the territory controlled by the Sena Dynasty. Following their defeat,Lakshmana Sena, the ruler of the Sena dynasty, retreated to the southeastern region of Bengal.
The Khalji dynasty was a Turko-Afghan dynasty which was the first independent Muslim Bengali State it lasted between 1204–1231 and was eventually annexed by the Delhi Sultanate.
The Islamic conquest of Bengal began with the capture ofGauda from the Sena dynasty in 1204. Led byBakhtiar Khilji, an army of several thousand horsemen from theGhurids overwhelmed Bengali Hindu forces during a blitzkrieg campaign. After victory, the Delhi Sultanate maintained a strong vigil on Bengal. Coins were inscribed in gold with the Sanskrit inscriptionGaudiya Vijaye, meaning "On the conquest of Gauda (Bengal)". Several governors of Delhi in Bengal attempted to break away and create an independent state. But the Delhi Sultanate managed to suppress Bengal's Muslim separatists for a century.[56] Gradually, eastern Bengal was absorbed into Muslim rule by the 14th century, such as through theConquest of Sylhet.Sufis played a role in the Islamic absorption of Bengal. During theTughluq dynasty, thetaka was introduced as the imperial currency.[57]
During the middle of the 14th century, three break away sultanates emerged in the Delhi Sultanate's province of Bengal. These included a realm led byFakhruddin Mubarak Shah (and later his son) inSonargaon;[58] a realm led byAlauddin Ali Shah in Gauda (also calledLakhnauti);[59] and a realm led byShamsuddin Ilyas Shah inSatgaon. The Moroccan travellerIbn Battuta visited Sonargaon during the reign of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. Ibn Battuta also visited the Sufi leaderShah Jalal in Sylhet, who had earlier defeated the Hindu ruler Govinda.[60][61]
In 1352, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah unified the three small sultanates in Bengal into a single government. Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the "Shah of Bangalah". His sonSikandar Shah defeated the Sultan of Delhi and secured recognition of Bengal's sovereignty after theBengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War. The largest mosque in India was built in Bengal to project the new sultanate's imperial ambitions. The sultans advanced civic institutions and became more responsive and "native" in their outlook. Considerable architectural projects were undertaken which induced the influence ofPersian architecture,Arab architecture and Byzantine architecture in Bengal. The dynasty was a promoter ofIndo-Persian culture. One of the sultans,Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, kept a correspondence with the renowned Persian poetHafez.
The early Bengal Sultanate was notable for its diplomatic relationships. Embassies were sent toMing China during the reign ofEmperor Yongle. China responded by sending envoys, including theTreasure voyages; and mediating in regional disputes. There are also records of the sultans' relations with Egypt, Herat and some kingdoms in Africa.
The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted in 1414 by a native uprising but was restored byNasiruddin Mahmud Shah in 1433.
The Ilyas Shahi reign was interrupted by an uprising orchestrated by the sultan's premierRaja Ganesha, a Hindu aristocrat. Ganesha installed his son Jadu to the throne but his son was influenced to convert to Islam[citation needed] by the court's Sufi clergy. Jadu took the title ofJalaluddin Muhammad Shah. His reign saw native Bengali elements promoted in the court's culture. Bengali influences were incorporated into the kingdom's architecture. TheBengal Sultanate-Jaunpur Sultanate War ended after mediation from China and the Timurids. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah also pursued theReconquest of Arakan to reinstall Arakan's king to the throne after he had been deposed by Burmese forces.[citation needed]
The Bengal Sultanate's territory reached its greatest extent underAlauddin Hussain Shah, founder of the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The dynasty is regarded by several historians as a golden age in which a syncretic Bengali culture evolved including elements of Muslim and Hindu traditions. For example, the Muslim sultan promoted the translation of Sanskrit epics like theRamayana into theBengali language. The promotion ofBengali literature under the dynasty led to Bengali replacing the strong influence of Sanskrit in the region.
In the 16th century, the Mughal emperorHumayun was forced to take shelter in Persia as the conquerorSher Shah Suri rampaged through the subcontinent. Bengal was brought the control of the short-livedSuri Empire.
An Afghan dynasty was the last royal house of the Bengal Sultanate. The capital of the dynasty wasSonargaon. The dynasty also ruled parts of Bihar and Orissa. Its eastern boundary was formed by the Brahmaputra River.
The Mughal absorption of Bengal began with theBattle of Ghaghra in 1529, in which the Mughal army was led by the first Mughal emperorBabur. The second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied the Bengali capitalGaur for six months.[62] TheBattle of Tukaroi oversaw a similar fate for the Bengal Sultanate with Mughal victory and parts of Bengal was annexed by the Mughals and some other parts were annexed by theKoch Dynasty.[63] Following the collapse of the Bengal Sultanate in theBattle of Raj Mahal in 1576, the Bengal region was brought under Mughal control as theBengal Subah.
A confederation of twelvezamindar families resisted the expansion of the Mughal Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. The zamindars included Muslims and Hindus. They were led byIsa Khan. Many prominent figures like theBengali Hindu jessore kingPratapaditya rose up and carved their own kingdoms within the Bhati. The Baro-Bhuyans defeated the Mughal navy during several engagements in Bengal's rivers. Eventually, the Mughals subdued the zamindar rebellion and brought all of Bengal under imperial control.
Subedars were the Mughal viceroys in Bengal. The Bengal Subah was part of a larger prosperous empire and shaped by imperial policies of pluralistic government. The Mughals built the provincial capital inDhaka in 1610 with fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces and mosques. Dhaka was also named in honour ofEmperor Jahangir asJahangirnagar.Shaista Khan's conquest of Chittagong in 1666 defeated the (Burmese) Kingdom of Arakan and reestablished Bengali control of the port city. The Chittagong Hill Tracts frontier region was made a tributary state of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with theChakma Circle in 1713.
Members of the imperial family were often appointed to the position of Subedar. RajaMan Singh I, theRajput ruler ofKingdom of Amber was the only Hindu subedar. One subedar was PrinceShah Shuja, who was the son of EmperorShah Jahan. During the struggle for succession with his brothers PrinceAurangazeb, Prince Dara Shikoh and Prince Murad Baksh, Prince Shuja proclaimed himself as the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was eventually defeated by the army of Aurangazeb.
Under the Mughal Empire, Bengal was an affluent province with a Muslim majority and Hindu minority. According to economic historian Indrajit Ray, it was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.[9] The capital Dhaka had a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated 80,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel,saltpetre, and agricultural and industrial produce.[11]
Bengali farmers and agriculturalists were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650.Bengali agriculturalists rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal as a major silk-producing region of the world.[64]
Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwidemuslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important center of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.[65] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[66] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold inIndonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.[67]
Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in thirteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[68]
By the 18th century, Bengal became a country under the of theNawabs of Bengal. The subedar was replaced to the status of a hereditary Nawab Nazim. The Nawabs maintained control of Bengal.[69]
The dynasty was founded by the first Nawab of BengalMurshid Quli Khan. Its other rulers includedSarfaraz Khan andShuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan.
The dynasty was founded byAlivardi Khan. His grandson and successorSiraj-ud-daulah was the last independent Nawab of Bengal due to his defeat to British forces at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.[71]
Nawab Alivardi Khan took the throne after a bloodyBattle at Giria, killingSarfaraz Khan and usurping power.
The first European colonial settlement in Bengal was thePortuguese settlement in Chittagong. The settlement was established after theBengal Sultanate granted permission to embassies fromPortuguese India for the creation of a trading post. The Portuguese settlers in Chittagong includedbureaucrats,merchants,soldiers,sailors,missionaries,slave traders andpirates. They controlled theport of Chittagong and forced allmerchant ships to acquire a Portuguese trade licence. TheRoman Catholic Church was established in Bengal by the Portuguese in Chittagong, when the firstVicar Apostolic was appointed in the port city.
The Portuguese eventually came under the protection of theKingdom of Mrauk U as the Bengal Sultanate lost control of the Chittagong region. In 1666, the Mughal conquest of Chittagong resulted in the expulsion of Portuguese and Arakanese forces in the port city. The Portuguese also migrated to other parts of Bengal, includingBandel and Dhaka.
The Portuguese brought with them exotic fruits, flowers and plants, which quickly became part of Bengali life:potato,cashew nut,chilli,papaya,pineapple,Carambola (Averrhoa carambola),guava,Alphonso mango (named afterAfonso de Albuquerque) andtomatoe, among others, showing their zeal for agri-horticulture. Even the Krishna Kali flower (Mirabilis jalapa) plant, with its varied colours, was a gift of the Portuguese. From their arrival, the Portuguese married local women, as a result, many Portuguese words like janala, almari, verandah, chabi, balti, perek, alpin, toalia came into the Bengali vocabulary. They also developed a great interest in theBengali language. The first printed book inprose in Bengali was by a Portuguese, as was the firstBengali grammar anddictionary:Manuel da Assumpção took on this monumental task, it was the first step to standardising and printing in the Bangla language, which slowly helped break the hegemony of the Persian language.[72] Till today mostBangladeshi Christians havePortuguesesurnames.[73]
TheDutch East India Company operated a directorate in Bengal for nearly two centuries. The directorate later became a colony of theDutch Empire in 1725. Dutch territories in Bengal were ceded to Britain by theAnglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Dutch settlements in Bengal included theDutch settlement in Rajshahi, the main Dutch port in Baliapal, as well as factories inChhapra (saltpetre), Dhaka (muslin),Balasore, Patna,Cossimbazar, Malda,Mirzapur,Murshidabad, Rajmahal and Sherpur.
Bengal once accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, particularly in terms of silk andmuslin goods.[74]
TheEast India Company established its first settlements in Bengal aroundHooghly during the 1630s.[75] It received an official permission to trade from Mughal viceroyShah Shuja in 1651.[75] In 1689, the company attempted to take Chittagong and make it the headquarters of their Bengal trade but the English expedition found the port heavily defended.[76][77] In 1696, the English builtFort William on the bank of theHooghly River. Fort William served as the British headquarters in India for centuries. The area around Fort William eventually grew into the city of Calcutta. English factories were established throughout Bengal. The port in Fort William became one of the most important British naval bases in Asia from where expeditions were sent to China and Southeast Asia. The English language began to be used for commerce and government in Bengal.[75]
TheFrench establishments in India included colonies and factories in Bengal. After permission from Mughal viceroyShaista Khan in 1692, the French set up a settlement inChandernagore. The French also had a large presence in Dhaka, where a neighbourhood calledFarashganj developed in theold city. One of the notable properties of the French included the land of theAhsan Manzil, where the French administrative building was located. The property was sold to Bengali aristocrats, who exchanged the property several times until it became the property of theDhaka Nawab Family. The French built a garden inTejgaon. Cossimbazar and Balasore also hosted French factories.[78]
The French took the side of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah during the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Eventually, the French presence in Bengal was only restricted to the colony of Chandernagore, which was administered by the governor inPondicherry. After India's independence in 1947, a referendum in Chandernagore gave a mandate to end colonial rule. The French transferred sovereignty in 1952. In 1955, Chandernagore became part of the Indian state ofWest Bengal.
The first settlement of theDanish East India Company in Bengal was established in Pipli in 1625. The Danish company later gained permission from NawabAlivardi Khan to establish a trading post inSerampore in 1755. The first representative of the Danish crown was appointed in 1770. The town was named Fredericknagore. The Danish also operated colonies on the Nicobar Islands in theBay of Bengal. Territories in Bengal and the Bay of Bengal were part ofDanish India until 1845, when Danish colonies were ceded to Britain.
TheOstend Company of theAustrian Empire operated a settlement inBankipur, Bengal during the 18th century.
When theEast India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort William (Calcutta), the Nawab,Siraj Ud Daulah, at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Under the leadership ofRobert Clive, British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March 1757 and seriously defeated the Nawab on 23 June 1757 at theBattle of Plassey, when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was assassinated in Murshidabad, and the British installed their own Nawab for Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763. The Bengalis attempted to regain their territories in 1765 in alliance with the Mughal EmperorShah Alam II, but were defeated again at theBattle of Buxar (1765). As part of the treaty with the British East India Company, East India Company was given the right to collect taxes from the province. Thus, the company became imperial tax collector, while the local Mughal Emperor appointed Nawabs continued to govern the province. In 1772 this arrangement of local rule was abolished and East India Company took complete control of the province. The center of Indian culture and trade shifted from Delhi to Calcutta when the Mughal Empire fell.
Capital amassed from Bengal by the East India Company was invested in various industries such astextile manufacturing inGreat Britain during the initial stages of theIndustrial Revolution.[12][13][14][15] Company policies in Bengal also led to thedeindustrialization of the Bengali textile industry during Company rule.[12][14]
During the period of Company rule, a devastatingfamine occurred1770, which killed millions. The famine devastated the region as well as the economy of the East India Company, forcing them to rely on subsidies from the British government, an act which would contribute to theAmerican Revolution.[79]
TheIndian Rebellion of 1857 replaced rule by the Company with the direct control of Bengal by the British Crown. Fort William continued to be the capital ofBritish-held territories in India. TheGovernor of Bengal was concurrently theGovernor-General of India for many years. In 1877, whenVictoria took the title of "Empress of India", the British declared Calcutta the capital of theBritish Raj. The colonial capital developed in Calcutta's municipality, which served as thecapital of India for decades. A centre of rice cultivation and the world's main source ofjute fibre; Bengal was one of India's largest industrial centers. From the 1850s, industry was centered around the capital Calcutta. The railway was created in Britain in 1825. It was introduced in the United States in 1833, Germany in 1835, Italy in 1839, France in 1844 and Spain in 1848. The British government introduced the railway to Bengal in 1854.[80] Several rail companies were established in Bengal during the 19th century, including theEastern Bengal Railway andAssam Bengal Railway. The largest seaport in British Bengal was thePort of Calcutta, one of the busiest ports in the erstwhileBritish Empire. TheCalcutta Stock Exchange was established in 1908. Other ports in Bengal included thePort of Narayanganj, thePort of Chittagong and thePort of Dhaka. Bengali ports were oftenfree trade ports which welcomed ships from across the world. There was extensive shipping withBritish Burma. Two universities were established in Bengal during British rule, including theUniversity of Calcutta and theUniversity of Dacca. Numerous colleges and schools were established in each district. Most of the Bengali population nevertheless remained dependent on agriculture, and despite Bengali social and political leaders playing a major role in Indian political and intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts.
The Bengal Presidency had the highest gross domestic product in British India.[81] Bengal hosted the most advanced cultural centers in British India.[82] A cosmopolitan, eclectic cultural atmosphere took shape. There were manyanglophiles, including theNaib Nazim of Dhaka. A Portuguese missionary published the first book onBengali grammar. A Hindu scholar produced a Bengali translation of the Quran. However, Bengalis were also divided by religion due to the political situation in the rest of India.
.jpg)
The Bengal renaissance refers to a social reform movement during the 19th and early 20th centuries in the region of Bengal inundivided India during the period of British rule. HistorianNitish Sengupta describes it as having started with reformer and humanitarianRaja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureateRabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[83] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historianDavid Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history".[84]
TheBengal Legislative Council was the principal lawmaking body in the province. It was created by theIndian Councils Act 1861 and reformed under theIndian Councils Act 1892, theIndian Councils Act 1909, theGovernment of India Act 1919 and theGovernment of India Act 1935. Initially an advisory council with mostly European members, native Bengali representation gradually increased in the early 20th century. In 1935, it became theupper house of the provincial legislature alongside the lower house in the Bengal Legislative Assembly. The Governor of Bengal, who was concurrently the Governor-General of India, often sat on the council.
The British government argued that Bengal, being India's most populous province, was too large and difficult to govern. Bengal was divided by the British rulers for administrative purposes in 1905 into an overwhelmingly Hindu west (including present-day Bihar and Odisha) and a predominantly Muslim east (includingAssam). Hindu – Muslim conflict became stronger through this partition. While Hindu Indians disagreed with the partition saying it was a way of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported it by saying it was a big step forward for Muslim society where Muslims will be majority and they can freely practice their religion as well as their culture. But owing to strong Hindu agitation, the British reunited East and West Bengal in 1912, and madeBihar and Orissa a separate province
The short lived province ofEastern Bengal and Assam provided impetus to a growing movement forself-determination among British-Indian Muslim subjects. TheAll India Muslim League was created during a conference onliberal education hosted by theNawab of Dhaka in Eastern Bengal and Assam. TheEastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council was the lawmaking body of the province.
Bengal played a major role in theIndian independence movement (including thePakistan movement), in whichrevolutionary groups such asAnushilan Samiti andJugantar were dominant. Bengalis also played a notable role in the Indian independence movement. Many of the early proponents of independence, and subsequent leaders in movement were Bengalis. Some notable freedom fighters from Bengal wereChittaranjan Das,Surendranath Banerjee,Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose,Prafulla Chaki,Bagha Jatin,Khudiram Bose,Surya Sen,Binoy–Badal–Dinesh,Sarojini Naidu,Batukeshwar Dutt,Aurobindo Ghosh,Rashbehari Bose,M.N. Roy,Muzaffar Ahmed and many more. Some of these leaders, such as Netaji, did not subscribe to the view that non-violent civil disobedience was the only way to achieve Indian Independence, and allied with Japan to fight against the British. During the Second World War Netaji escaped to Germany from house arrest in India and there he founded the Indian Legion an army to fight against the British Government, but the turning of the war compelled him to come to South-East Asia and there he became the co-founder and leader of theIndian National Army (distinct from the army of British India) that challenged British forces in several parts of India. He was also the head of state of a parallel regime named 'The Provisional Government of Free India' orArzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind, that was recognised and supported by theAxis powers. Bengal was also the fostering ground for several prominent revolutionary movements like theIndigo revolt and theChittagong armoury raid. A large number of Bengalis died in the independence struggle and many were exiled inCellular Jail, the much dreaded prison located inAndaman.
TheBengal Legislative Assembly was British India's largest legislature. It was created by theGovernment of India Act 1935 as the lower house of the provincial parliament. The assembly was elected on the basis of the so-called "separate electorate" system created by theCommunal Award. Seats were reserved for different religious, social and professional communities. Major parties in the assembly included theAll India Muslim League, theFarmers and Tenants Party, theIndian National Congress, theSwaraj Party and theHindu Mahasabha. ThePrime Minister of Bengal was a member of the assembly.
Bengal was used as a base forAllied Forces duringWorld War II. Bengal was strategically important during theBurma Campaign and Allied assistance to theRepublic of China to fight off theJapanese invasions. The Imperial Japanese Air Force bombed Chittagong in April and May 1942; and Calcutta in December 1942. The Japanese aborted a planned invasion of Bengal from Burma. TheLedo Road was constructed between Bengal and China through Allied controlled areas in northern Burma to supply the forces led byChiang Kai Shek. Units of theUnited States Armed Forces were stationed inChittagong Airfield during theBurma Campaign 1944-1945.[85] Commonwealth forces included troops from Britain, India, Australia and New Zealand.
TheBengal famine of 1943 occurred during World War II and caused the death of an estimated 2.1–3 million people.
The partition of Bengal in 1947 left a deep impact on the people of Bengal. The breakdown ofHindu-Muslim unity caused the All India Muslim League to demand the partition of India in line with theLahore Resolution, which called for Bengal to be included in a Muslim-majority homeland. Hindu nationalists in Bengal were determined to make Hindu-majority districts a part of the Indian dominion. A majority of members in the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted to keep Bengal undivided. The Prime Minister of Bengal, supported by Hindu and Muslim politicians, proposed aUnited Bengal as a sovereign state. However, the Indian National Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha on one side and the Muslim League on the other forced the British viceroyEarl Mountbatten to partition Bengal along religious lines. As a result, Bengal was divided into the state ofWest Bengal of India and the province ofEast Bengal under Pakistan, renamedEast Pakistan in 1955. The Sylhet region in Assam joined East Bengal after a referendum on 6 July 1947.
In 1346 ... what became known as the Bengal Sultanate began and continued for almost two centuries.
The rulers of the Sultanate Bengal are often blamed for promoting Islam as state sponsored religion.
In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ... peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon.
[Rājendra Chola I], after conquering eastern Bengal (Vangāladesa),
A passage of Pliny clearly suggests that the "Palibothri," i.e., the rulers of Pataliputra, dominated the whole tract along the Ganges. That the Magadhan kings retained their hold on Bengal as late as the time of Aśoka is suggested by the testimony of the Divyavadāna and of Hiuen Tsang who saw Stupas of that monarch near Tamralipti and Karnasuvarna (in West Bengal), in Samataṭa (East Bengal) as well as in Pundravardhana (North Bengal).
A large number of monasteries had been established in different parts of Bengal (Samatata, Pundravardhana, Tamralipta etc.) during the time of Asoka. This is known from Hiuen Tasng who had seen them when he visited Bengal... In Asoka's timeTamralipta was the chief port of the Mauryan empire and the communication between Ceylon and Magadha was maintained through Tamralipta. Asoka paid his visit to Bengal and at least once he came to Tamralipta. From the Ceylonese chronicle, the Mahavamsa, we come to know how Asoka visited Tamralipta on the occasion of the voyage of Mahendra and Sanghamitra with the holy branch of the Bodhi tree to Sinhala (modern Srilanka) at the time of the rule of the pious king Devanampriya Tissa of Ceylon .
The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775-1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941).
_without_national_boundaries.svg)
