Thehistory ofAnatolia (often referred to in historical sources as Asia Minor) can be roughly subdivided into:Prehistory of Anatolia (up to the end of the 3rd millenniumBCE),Ancient Anatolia (including Hattian, Hittite and post-Hittite periods),Classical Anatolia (including Achaemenid, Hellenistic and Roman periods),Byzantine Anatolia (later overlapping, since the 11th century, with the gradualSeljuk andOttoman conquest),Ottoman Anatolia (14th–20th centuries) and theModern Anatolia, since the creation of theRepublic of Turkey.

Prehistory of Anatolia encompasses the entireprehistoric period, from the earliest archeological records of human presence in Anatolia, to the advent of historical era, marked by the appearance ofliteracy andhistorical sources related to the territory of Anatolia (c. 2000 BCE). In 2014, a stone tool was found in theGediz River that was dated with certainty to 1.2 million years ago.^[1] The 27,000 years old homo sapiens footprints ofKula^[2] andKarain Cave are samples for human existence in Anatolia, in this period. Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been the center of severalcivilizations since prehistoric times.Neolithic settlements includeÇatalhöyük,Çayönü,Nevalı Çori,Hacılar,Göbekli Tepe, andMersin.

Bronze metallurgy spread to Anatolia from the TranscaucasianKura-Araxes culture in the late 4th millennium BCE, marking the beginning of theBronze Age in the region. Anatolia remained in the prehistoric period until it entered the sphere of influence of theAkkadian Empire in the 24th century BCE underSargon I. The oldest recorded name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central areas, known as the "Land ofHatti". That designation that was initially used for the land of ancientHattians, but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancientHittites.^[3] The interest of Akkad in the region as far as it is known was for exporting various materials for manufacturing.^[4] While Anatolia was well endowed with copper ores, there is no trace as yet of substantial workings of thetin required to make bronze in Bronze-Age Anatolia.^[5]Akkad suffered problematic climate changes inMesopotamia, as well as a reduction in available manpower that affected trade. This led to the fall of theAkkadians around 2150 BCE at the hands of theGutians.^[6]

TheOld Assyrian Empire claimed the resources for themselves after theGutians were vanquished, notably silver. One of the numerousAssyriancuneiform records found in Anatolia atKanesh uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.^[4]

TheHittite Old Kingdom emerges towards the close of the Middle Bronze Age, conqueringHattusa underHattusili I (17th century BCE).

The Anatolian Middle Bronze Age influenced theMinoan culture onCrete as evidenced byarchaeological recovery atKnossos.^[7]

The Hittite Empire was at its height in the 14th century BCE, encompassing central Anatolia, north-westernSyria as far asUgarit, and upper Mesopotamia.Kizzuwatna in southern Anatolia controlled the region separatingHatti fromSyria, thereby greatly affecting trade routes. The peace was kept in accordance with both empires through treaties that established boundaries of control. It was not until the reign of the Hittite kingŠuppiluliuma II thatKizzuwatna was fully taken over, and theHittites still preserved their cultural accomplishments inKummanni (now Şar,Turkey) and Lazawantiya, north ofCilicia.^[8]

After the 1180s BCE, amid general turmoil in theLevant associated with the sudden arrival of theSea Peoples, the empire disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite" city-states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BCE. The history of theHittite civilization is known mostly fromcuneiform texts found in the area of their empire, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East.

Beginning with theBronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the west coast of Anatolia was settled byIonian Greeks, usurping the related but earlierMycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greekcity-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).^[9]

ThePhrygian Kingdom essentially came into being after the fragmentation of theHittite Empire during the 12th century BCE, and existed independently until the 7th century BCE. Possibly from the region ofThrace, thePhrygians eventually established their capital ofGordium (now inYassıhüyük, Polatlı). Known asMushki by theAssyrians, thePhrygian people lacked central control in their style of government, and yet established an extensive network of roads. They also held tightly onto a lot of theHittite facets of culture and adapted them over time.^[10]

Shrouded in myth and legend^[tone] promulgated by ancient Greek and Roman writers isKing Midas, the last king of thePhrygian Kingdom. The mythology ofMidas revolves around his ability to turn objects to gold by mere touch, as granted byDionysos, and his unfortunate encounter withApollo from which his ears are turned into the ears of a donkey. The historical record ofMidas shows that he lived approximately between 740 and 696 BCE, and representedPhrygia as a great king. Most historians now consider him to be King Mita of theMushkis as noted inAssyrian accounts. TheAssyrians thought of Mita as a dangerous foe, forSargon II, their ruler at the time, was quite happy to negotiate a peace treaty in 709 BCE. This treaty had no effect on the advancingCimmerians, who streamed into Phrygia and led to the downfall and suicide ofKing Midas in 696 BCE.^[11]

Lydia, or Maeonia as it was called before 687 BCE, was a major part of the history of western Anatolia, beginning with the Atyad dynasty, who first appeared around 1300 BCE. The succeeding dynasty, the Heraclids, managed to rule successively from 1185 to 687 BCE despite a growing presence ofGreek influences along the Mediterranean coast. As Greek cities such asSmyrna,Colophon, andEphesus rose, theHeraclids became weaker and weaker. The last king,Candaules, was murdered by his friend and lance-bearer namedGyges, and he took over as ruler.Gyges waged war against the intruding Greeks, and soon faced by a grave problem as theCimmerians began to pillage outlying cities within the kingdom. It was this wave of attacks that led to the incorporation of the formerly independentPhrygia and its capitalGordium into theLydian domain. It was until the successive rules ofSadyattes andAlyattes, ending in 560 BCE, that the attacks of theCimmerians ended for good. Under the reign of the lastLydian kingCroesus,Persia was invaded first at theBattle of Pteria ending without a victor. Progressing deeper intoPersia,Croesus was thoroughly defeated in theBattle of Thymbra at the hands of thePersianCyrus II in 546 BCE.^[12]

By 550 BCE, theMedian Empire, which had existed for barely a hundred years, was suddenly torn apart by a Persian rebellion. AsLydia's king,Croesus had a large amount of wealth which to draw from, and he used it to go on the offensive against thePersian kingCyrus the Great. In the end,Croesus was thrust back west and Cyrus burned the Lydian capitalSardis, taking control of Lydia in 546 BCE.^[13]

The remaining kingdom ofIonia and several cities of Lydia still refused to fall underPersian domination, and prepared defenses to fight them and sending for aid fromSparta. Since no aid was promised except for a warning to Cyrus from their emissary, eventually their stance was abandoned and they submitted, or they fled as in citizens fromPhocaea toCorsica or citizens fromTeos toAbdera inThrace.^[14]

TheAchaemenid Persian Empire, thus founded by Cyrus the Great, continued its expansion under thePersia kingDarius the Great, in which thesatrap system of local governors continued to be used and upgraded and other governmental upgrades were carried out. A revolt byNaxos in 502 BCE promptedAristagoras ofMiletus to devise a grandiose plan by which he would give a share ofNaxos's wealth toArtaphernes, satrap of Lydia, in return for his aid in quashing the revolt. The failure of Aristagoras in fulfilling his promise of rewards and his conduct disturbed the Persians, so much so that he resorted to convincing his fellow Ionians to revolt against the Persians. This revolt, known as theIonian Revolt, spread across Anatolia, and withAthenian aid, Aristagoras held firm for a time, despite the loss in theBattle of Ephesus. The burning ofSardis in 498 BCE enragedDarius so much that he swore revenge uponAthens. This event brought down the hammer upon Aristagoras as the Persian army swept through Ionia, re-taking city by city. It was the eventualBattle of Lade outsideMiletus in 494 BCE that put an end to theIonian Revolt once and for all.^[15]

Although thePersian Empire had official control of the Carians as a satrap, the appointed local rulerHecatomnus took advantage of his position. He gained for his family an autonomous hand in control of the province by providing thePersians with regular tribute, avoiding the look of deception. His sonMausolus continued in this manner, and expanded upon the groundwork laid by his father. He first removed the official capital of the satrap fromMylasa toHalicarnassus, gaining a strategic naval advantage as the new capital was on the ocean. On this land he built a strong fortress and a works by which he could build up a strong navy. He shrewdly used this power to guarantee protection for the citizens ofChios,Kos, andRhodes as they proclaimed independence fromAthenian Greece.Mausolus did not live to see his plans realized fully, and his position went to his widowArtemisia. The local control over Caria remained inHecatomnus's family for another 20 years before the arrival ofAlexander the Great.^[16]

In 336 BCE, KingPhilip of Macedon was unexpectedly killed, making his sonAlexander the new ruler ofMacedon as he was very popular. He immediately went to work, raising a force large enough to go up against thePersians, gathering a navy large enough to counter any threats by their powerful navy. Landing on the shores of Anatolia nearSestos on theGallipoli in 334 BCE,Alexander first faced thePersian army in theBattle of the Granicus, in which thePersians were effectively routed. Using the victory as a springboard for success,Alexander turned his attention to the rest of the western coast, liberatingLydia andIonia in quick succession. The eventual fall ofMiletus led to the brilliant strategy byAlexander to defeat thePersian navy by taking every city along the Mediterranean instead of initiating a very high-risk battle on the sea. By reducing this threat,Alexander turned inland, rolling throughPhyrgia,Cappadocia, and finallyCilicia, before reachingMount Amanus. Scouts forAlexander found thePersian army, under its kingDarius III, advancing through the plains ofIssus in search ofAlexander. At this moment,Alexander realized that the terrain favored his smaller army, and theBattle of Issus began.Darius's army was effectively squeezed by theMacedonians, leading to not only an embarrassing defeat forDarius, but that he fled back across theEuphrates river, leaving the rest of his family inAlexander's hands. Thus, Anatolia was freed from thePersian yoke for good.^[17]

In June 323 BCE,Alexander died suddenly, leaving a power vacuum inMacedon, putting all he had worked for at risk. Being that his half-brotherArrhidaeus was unable to rule effectively due to a serious disability, a succession of wars over the rights to his conquests were fought known as the Wars of theDiadochi.Perdiccas, a high-ranking officer of the cavalry, and laterAntigonus, thePhrygiansatrap, prevailed over the other contenders ofAlexander's empire in Asia for a time.^[18]

Ptolemy, the governor of Egypt,Lysimachus, andSeleucus, strong leaders ofAlexander's, consolidated their positions after theBattle of Ipsus, in which their common rivalAntigonus was defeated. The former empire ofAlexander was divided as such:Ptolemy gained territory in southernAnatolia, much ofEgypt and theLevant, which combined to form thePtolemaic Empire;Lysimachus controlled westernAnatolia andThrace, while Seleucus claimed the rest ofAnatolia as theSeleucid Empire. Only the kingdom ofPontus underMithridates I managed to gain their independence inAnatolia due to the fact that Antigonus had been a common enemy.^[19]

Seleucus I Nicator first created a capital city over the span of 12 years (299–287 BCE) worthy of his personage,Antioch, named after his fatherAntiochus. He concentrated also on creating a large standing army, and also divided his empire into 72satrapies for easier administration. After a peaceful beginning, a rift occurred betweenLysimachus and Seleucus that led to open warfare in 281 BCE. Even though Seleucus had managed to defeat his former friend and gain his territory at theBattle of Corupedium, it cost him his life as he was assassinated byPtolemy Keraunos, future king ofMacedon, inLysimachia.^[20]

After the death of Seleucus, the empire he left faced many trials, both from internal and external forces.Antiochus I fought off an attack from theGauls successfully, but could not defeat the King ofPergamonEumenes I in 262 BCE, guaranteeingPergamon's independence.^[21]Antiochus II named Theos, or "divine", was poisoned by his first wife, who in turn poisonedBerenice Phernophorus, second wife ofAntiochus and the daughter ofPtolemy III Euergetes.Antiochus II's son from his first wife,Seleucus II Callinicus, ended up as ruler of theSeleucids after this tragedy. These turn of events made Ptolemy III very angry, and led to the invasion of the empire (theThird Syrian War) in 246 BCE. This invasion leads to victory for Ptolemy III atAntioch andSeleucia, and he grants the lands ofPhrygia toPontus'sMithridates II in 245 BCE as a wedding gift.^[22]

Events in the east showed the fragile nature of theSeleucids as aBactrian-inspired revolt inParthia begun by itssatrapAndragoras in 245 BCE led to the loss of territory borderingPersia. This was coupled with an unexpected invasion of northernParthia by the nomadicParni in 238 BCE and a subsequent occupation of the whole ofParthia by one of their leaders,Tiridates.^[23]Antiochus II Theos of theSeleucids failed to end the rebellion, and therefore a new kingdom was created, theParthian Empire, under Tiridates's brotherArsaces I. Parthia extended to theEuphrates river at the height of its power.^[24]

The kingdom ofPergamon under theAttalid dynasty was an independent kingdom established after the rule ofPhiletaerus by his nephewEumenes I. Eumenes enlarged Pergamon to include parts ofMysia andAeolis, and held tightly onto the ports of Elaia andPitane.Attalus I, successor ofEumenes I, remained active outside of the boundaries of Pergamon. He refused protection payment to theGalatians and won a fight against them in 230 BCE, and then defeatedAntiochus Hierax three years later in order to secure nominal control over Anatolia under theSeleucids. The victory was not to last asSeleucus III reestablished control of his empire, but Attalus was allowed to retain control of former territories of Pergamon.^[25]

The dealings withAttalus proved to be the last time theSeleucids had any meaningful success in Anatolia as the Roman Empire lay on the horizon. After that victory,Seleucus's heirs would never again expand their empire.^[18]

In theSecond Punic War, Rome had suffered in Spain, Africa, and Italy because of the impressive strategies ofHannibal, the famousCarthaginian general. When Hannibal entered into an alliance withPhilip V of Macedon in 215 BCE, Rome used a small naval force with theAetolian League to help ward off Hannibal in the east and to preventMacedonian expansion in western Anatolia.Attalus I ofPergamon, along withRhodes, traveled to Rome and helped convince the Romans that war againstMacedon was supremely necessary. The Roman generalTitus Quinctius Flamininus not only soundly defeatedPhilip's army in theBattle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BCE, but also brought further hope to theGreeks when he said that an autonomous Greece and Greek cities in Anatolia was what Rome desired.^[4]

During the period just after Rome's victory, theAetolian League desired some of the spoils left in the wake ofPhilip's defeat, and requested a shared expedition withAntiochus III of theSeleucids to obtain it. Despite warnings by Rome, Antiochus leftThrace and ventured into Greece, deciding to ally himself with theLeague. This was intolerable for Rome, and they soundly defeated him inThessaly atThermopylae before Antiochus retreated toAnatolia nearSardis.^[4] Combining forces with the Romans,Eumenes II ofPergamon met Antiochus in theBattle of Magnesia in 189 BCE. There Antiochus was thrashed by an intensive cavalry charge by the Romans and an outflanking maneuver by Eumenes.

Because of theTreaty of Apamea the very next year,Pergamon was granted all of theSeleucid lands north of theTaurus Mountains andRhodes was given all that remained. This seemingly great reward would be the downfall of Eumenes as an effective ruler, for after Pergamon defeatedPrusias I ofBithynia andPharnaces I ofPontus, he delved too deeply into Roman affairs and the Roman senate became alarmed. When Eumenes put down an invasion by theGalatians in 184 BCE, Rome countered his victory by freeing them, providing a heavy indicator that the scope ofPergamon's rule was now stunted.^[26]

The interior of Anatolia had been relatively stable despite occasional incursions by theGalatians until the rise of the kingdoms ofPontus andCappadocia in the 2nd century BCE.Cappadocia underAriarathes IV initially was allied with theSeleucids in their war against Rome, but he soon changed his mind and repaired relations with them by marriage and his conduct. His son,Ariarathes V Philopator, continued his father's policy of allying with Rome and even joined with them in battle againstPrusias I ofBithynia when he died in 131 BCE.Pontus had been an independent kingdom since the rule ofMithridates when the threat ofMacedon had been removed. Despite several attempts by theSeleucid Empire to defeatPontus, independence was maintained. When Rome became involved in Anatolian affairs underPharnaces I, an alliance was formed that guaranteed protection for the kingdom. The other major kingdom in Anatolia,Bithynia, established byNicomedes I atNicomedia, always maintained good relations with Rome. Even under the hatedPrusias II ofBithynia when that relationship was strained it did not cause much trouble.^[20]

The rule of Rome in Anatolia was unlike any other part of their empire because of their light hand with regards to government and organization. Controlling unstable elements within the region was made simpler by the bequeathal ofPergamon to the Romans by its last king,Attalus III in 133 BCE. The new territory was named the province of Asia by RomanconsulManius Aquillius the Elder.^[26]

TheMithridatic Wars were preceded by infighting that drew Rome into a war againstItalian rebels known as theSocial War in 90 BCE.Mithridates VI ofPontus decided that it was time to strike in Anatolia while Rome was occupied, overrunningBithynia. Though he withdrew when this was demanded of him by Rome he did not agree to all Rome's demands. As a result, Rome encouraged Bithynia to attack Pontus but Bithynia was defeated.^[27] Mithridates then marched into the Roman province of Asia, where he persuadedGreeks to slaughter as manyItalians as possible (theAsiatic Vespers). Despite a power struggle within Rome itself, consulCornelius Sulla went to Anatolia to defeat thePontian king.Sulla defeated him thoroughly in and leftMithridates with onlyPontus in theTreaty of Dardanos.^[4]

In 74 BCE, another Anatolian kingdom passed under Roman control asNicomedes IV ofBithynia instructed it to be done after his death. MakingBithynia a Roman province soon after rousedMithridates VI to once again go after more territory, and he invaded it in the same year. Rome this time sent consulLucius Licinius Lucullus to take back control of the province. The expedition proved to be very positive asMithridates was driven back into the mountains.^[4]

The failure ofLucius Licinius Lucullus to rid Rome once and for all ofMithridates brought a lot of opposition back at home, some fueled by the great Roman consulPompey. A threat by pirates on the Roman food supply in theAegean Sea broughtPompey once again to the forefront of Roman politics, and he drove them back toCilicia. The powers grantedPompey after this success allowed him to not only throw backMithridates all the way to theBosphorus, but made neighboringArmenia aclient kingdom. In the end,Mithridates committed suicide in 63 BCE, and therefore allowed Rome to addPontus as a protectorate along withCilicia as a Roman province.^[4] This left onlyGalatia,Pisidia andCappadocia, all ruled byAmyntas in whole, as the last remaining kingdom not under a protectorate or provincial status. However, in 25 BCE,Amyntas died while pursuing enemies in theTaurus Mountains, and Rome claimed his lands as a province, leaving Anatolia completely inRoman hands.^[28]

Jewish influences in Anatolia were changing the religious makeup of the region as Rome consolidated its power. In about 210 BCE,Antiochus III of theSeleucid Empire relocated 2,000 families of Jews fromBabylonia toLydia andPhrygia, and this kind of migration continued throughout the remainder of the Empire's existence. Additional clues to the size of the Jewish influence in the area were provided byCicero, who noted that a fellow Roman governor had halted the tribute sent toJerusalem by Jews in 66 BCE, and the record ofEphesus, where the people urgedAgrippina to expelJews because they were not active in their religious activities.^[29]

The blossoming religious following of Christianity was evident in Anatolia during the beginning of the 1st century. The letters ofSt. Paul in theNew Testament reflect this growth, particularly in his home province of Asia. From his home inEphesus from 54 AD to 56 AD he noted that "all they which dwelt in Asia heard the word" and verified the existence of a church inColossae as well asTroas. Later he received letters fromMagnesia andTralleis, both of which already had churches, bishops, and official representatives who supportedIgnatius of Antioch. After the references to these institutions bySt. Paul, theBook of Revelation mentions theSeven Churches of Asia:Ephesus, Magnesia,Thyatira,Smyrna,Philadelphia,Pergamon, andLaodicea.^[30] Even other non-Christians started to take notice of the new religion. In 112 the Roman governor inBithynia writes to the Roman emperorTrajan that so many different people are flocking to Christianity, leaving the temples vacated.^[31]

From the rule ofAugustus onwards until that ofConstantine I, Anatolia enjoyed relative peace that allowed itself to grow as a region. The emperorAugustus removed all debts owed to the Roman Empire by the provinces and protectorates there, making advanced progress possible. Roads were built to connect the larger cities in order to improve trade and transportation, and the abundance of high outputs in agricultural pursuits made more money for everyone involved. Settlement was encouraged, and local governors did not place a heavy burden upon the people with regards to taxation. The wealth gained from the peace and prosperity prevented great tragedy as powerful earthquakes tore through the region, and help was given from the Roman government and other parties. Through it all was produced some of the most respected scientific men of that period- the philosopherDio of Bithynia, the medical mind ofGalen fromPergamon, and the historiansMemnon of Heraclea andCassius Dio ofNicaea.^[32]

By the middle of the 3rd century, everything that had been built by peace was being threatened by a new enemy, the Goths. As the inroads to central Europe through Macedonia, Italy, and Germania were all defended successfully by the Romans, the Goths found Anatolia to be irresistible due to its wealth and deteriorating defenses. Using a captured fleet of ships from the Bosphorus and flat-bottomed boats to cross theBlack Sea, they sailed in 256 around the eastern shores, landing in the coastal city ofTrebizond. What ensued was a huge embarrassment forPontus — the wealth of the city was absconded, a larger number of ships were confiscated, and they entered the interior without much to turn them back. A second invasion of Anatolia throughBithynia brought even more terror inland and wanton destruction. The Goths enteredChalcedon and used it as a base by which to expand their operations, sackingNicomedia,Prusa,Apamea,Cius, andNice in turn. Only the turn of the weather during a fall season kept them from doing any more harm to those outside the realm of the province. The Goths managed a third attack upon not only the coastline of western Anatolia, but in Greece and Italy as well. Despite the Romans under their emperorValerian finally turning them away, it did not stop the Goths from first destroying the Temple of Diana inEphesus and the city itself in 263.^[33]

The constant instability of theRoman Empire as a whole gradually made it more and more difficult to control. Upon the ascension of the emperor Constantine in 330, he made a bold decision by removing himself from Rome and into a new capital. Located in the old city ofByzantium, now known asConstantinople after the emperor, it was strengthened and improved in order to assure more than adequate defense of the whole region. What added to the prestige of the city was Constantine's favor ofChristianity. He allowed bishops and other religious figures to aid in the government of the empire, and he personally intervened in theFirst Council of Nicaea to prove his sincerity.

The next forty years after the death of Constantine in 337 saw a power struggle amongst his descendants for control of the empire. His three sons,Constantine,Constans, andConstantius were unable to coexist peacefully under a joint rule, and they eventually resorted to violent means to end the arrangement. A short time after taking power, a purge of a majority of their relations began and the blood of Constantine's progeny flowed. Eventually Constans came after and killed Constantine II nearAquileia, but was soon removed and himself murdered by his own army. This left Constantius II as the sole emperor of the Byzantines, but even this would not last. Despite supporting his cousinJulian as commander of the armies inGaul, events soon forced Julian to ignore Constantine's orders to move eastward with his armies and to head straight for Constantinople to claim the imperial purple. The death of Constantius II inTarsus resulted in a bloodless transfer of power in 361. Julian did not survive but a scant year and a half thanks to a Persian spear, but during that time he tried to revert what progressChristianity had made after the founding of the empire. Even on his deathbed he was supposed to have said"Thou hast conquered, Galilean.", a reference to Christianity besting him.^[34]

The threat of barbarian invasion and its effects upon the Roman Empire in the west carried over into the east. After a short rule by the emperorJovian and a joint rule of both empires byValentinian II in the west andValens in the east, the young emperorGratian made what was to be a very fortunate decision. He chose the favored generalTheodosius I to rule with his as a co-emperor, granting him authority over all of the domains of the Byzantine empire in 379. This proved to be a wise decision with regards to the survival of his newly obtained dominion, for he immediately set about healing the religious rifts that had emerged during the insecurity of past years. The practice ofArianism and pagan rites were abolished, and the standards set byConstantine inNicaea were restored by law. By 395, the year in which theRoman Empire was officially divided in half and the aptly namedTheodosius the Great died, the east was so strong that it could now be considered an equal.^[35]

The Byzantine Empire was the predominantly Greek-speaking continuation of theRoman Empire duringLate Antiquity and theMiddle Ages. Its capital city wasConstantinople (modern-dayIstanbul), originally known asByzantium. Initially the eastern half of theRoman Empire (often called the Eastern Roman Empire in this context), it survived the 5th century fragmentation andfall of the Western Roman Empire and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to theOttoman Turks in 1453.

The Sassanid Persians, after having fought centuries of wars against the Byzantines and at their peak siegedConstantinople together with the Avars, paved the way for a new threat to enter onto the scene; the Arabs.

Arab attacks throughout the empire reduced significantly the territory once held underJustinian. While this resulted in the loss of much of the Byzantine Empire's diversity in languages and religious views, regions such as Cappadocia experienced the influx of Armenians,Jacobite Syrians and Georgians who were invited by the Byzantine emperors as settlers in this border region.^[36]

The population of Anatolia andBalkans including Greece was estimated at 10.7 million in 600 CE, whereas Asia Minor was probably around 8 million during the early part of Middle Ages (950 to 1348 CE). The estimated population for Asia Minor around 1204 CE was 6 million, including 3 million in Seljuk territory.^{[37][better source needed]} Themigration of Turks to the country of modern Turkey occurred during the mainTurkic migration across most ofCentral Asia and intoEurope and theMiddle East which was between the 6th and 11th centuries. Mainly Turkic people living in theSeljuk Empire arrived in Turkey during the eleventh century. The Seljuks proceeded to gradually conquer the Anatolian part of theByzantine Empire.

TheHouse of Seljuk was a branch of theKınıkOğuz Turks who resided on the periphery of theMuslim world, north of theCaspian andAral Seas in the YabghuKhaganate of the Oğuz confederacy^[38] in the 10th century. In the 11th century, the Turkic people living in the Seljuk Empire started migrating from their ancestral homelands towards east of Anatolia, which eventually became a new homeland of Oğuz Turkic tribes following theBattle of Manzikert on August 26, 1071.

The victory of the Seljuks gave rise to theSeljuk Sultanate of Rum, a separate branch of the largerSeljuk Empire^[39] and to some Turkish principalities (beyliks), mostly situated towards the east which were vassals of or at war with Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.

The four Crusades that involved the Byzantines severely weakened their power, and led to a disunity that would never be successfully restored.

On June 26, 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated by theMongols in theBattle of Kosedag, and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm became a vassal of the Mongols.^[40] This caused the Seljuks to lose their power.Hulegu Khan, grandson ofGenghis Khan founded the Ilkhanate in the southwestern part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate ruled Anatolia through Mongol military governors. The last Seljuk sultanMesud II, died in 1308. The Mongol invasion of Transoxiana, Iran, Azerbaijan and Anatolia caused Turkomens to move to Western Anatolia.^[41] The Turkomens founded some Anatolian principalities (beyliks) under the Mongol dominion in Turkey.^[42] The most powerful beyliks were theKaramanids and theGermiyanids in the central area. Along the Aegean coast, from north to south, stretchedKarasids,Sarukhanids,Aydinids,Menteşe andTeke principalities. TheJandarids (later calledIsfendiyarids) controlled theBlack Sea region roundKastamonu andSinop.^[43] The Beylik of theOttoman Dynasty was situated in the northwest of Anatolia, aroundSöğüt, and it was a small and insignificant state at that time. The Ottoman beylik would, however, evolve into theOttoman Empire over the next 200 years, expanding throughout theBalkans,Anatolia.^[44]

The newly forming states of the Turks gradually squeezed the empire so much that it was only a matter of time before Constantinople was taken in 1453.

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