In the early 19th-century United States, settlers encountered the remnants of ancient mounds, or earthenworks. Locals speculated about who had constructed the mounds, how they arrived in the Americas, and their relationship to contemporary indigenous populations.[5]
Joseph Smith, a young folk magic practitioner, reported a vision of treasures buried by ancient Mound Builders near his family home in New York.[5] In subsequent years, Smith claimed he had obtained the treasure, including a set of golden plates containing historical records and artifacts allowing the plates to be miraculously translated.[6] Smith published an English-language volume titled "The Book of Mormon" which purported to be a historic record of the ancient Americas.[5]
The Book of Mormon proposed to answer the questions of the day, explaining the transit of peoples to the Americas as a miraculous ocean voyage and narrating the destruction of mound builders at the hands of dark-skinned Americans.[6] The Book of Mormon claims that shortly after God's miraculousconfusion of tongues as punishment for theTower of Babel, a group called theJaredites undertook a miraculous transoceanic voyage to the Americas. The book further claims to describe the events in America after the fall of Jerusalem around 600 BCE, describing the righteous light-skinnedNephites who ultimately die at the hand of theLamanites, a people cursed with dark skin by God for their wickedness. Archaeology has since concluded the mounds were constructive by a diverse set of ancient Native Americans, not a distinct culture or people.[5]
Founding a church and becoming its "Prophet, Seer, and Revelatory", Smith later began issuing statements he claimed were authored directly by God, without relying on claims of plates or artifacts.[6]
Though purportedly a translation of ancient records, the Book of Mormon is regarded as a 19th-century work dictated, edited, and published by Joseph Smith. ArchaeologistMichael D. Coe wrote:
I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing the foregoing to be true [...] nothing, absolutely nothing, has ever shown up in any New World excavation which would suggest to a dispassionate observer that the Book of Mormon, as claimed by Joseph Smith, is a historical document relating to the history of early migrants to our hemisphere.[7]
The Book of Mormon contains extensive verbatim content taken from the 1769 edition of the King James Bible, even replicating translation errors found in that specific edition.
While Smith and the Book of Mormon hold thatCumorah was a human-made mound, the hill is actually a naturally occurring glacialdrumlin. Though the book claims Cumorah was the site of a battle with 200,000 deaths, there is no evidence that the hill was ever a settlement, fortification, or battle site.[18][19]
In Smith's era, there was a widespread belief that a"lost white race" had been responsible for building the large mounds throughout North America. The Book of Mormon adopts this viewpoint, claiming white pre-Columbian Americans likeMoroni had been responsible for the mounds before being killed.[20][21] Similarly, in Smith's era, some authors subscribed to theJewish Indian theory, the idea that Native Americans had originally come from the Middle East. The Book of Mormon adopted this theory, claiming that Native Americans were descended from the Lamanites: migrants who journeyed from the Middle East to the Americas in 600 BCE and were later cursed with dark skin for their wickedness. In fact, the Americas had been inhabited for at least 15,000 years after migrants arrived from Asia, not the Middle East. Dark skin is modernly considered advantageous in a high-sun environment, not a divine curse. Beginning in 2007, the Book of Mormon's introduction was revised: it no longer claimed that the Lamanites were the "primary ancestors of the American Indians"; the revised text claims only that the Lamanites were "among the ancestors" of Native Americans.[22]
Claims of the book's provenance further cast doubt upon its historicity. The receipt of the plates and their "translation" was described as magical or miraculous in nature. Smith did not permit others to view the plates and did not himself view the plates during the dictation of the Book of Mormon, instead looking at a seer stone in a hat. All twelve witnesses to the gold plates reaffirmed the truth of the Book of Mormon throughout their lives even though some were in and out of church fellowship over their lifetime.[23][24]Smith reported he returned the plates to an angel.[25]
Smith went on to be indicted for violating banking laws and to produce other ahistorical texts.
In 1837, Smith and his followers began issuing bank notes not backed by assets through theKirtland Safety Society. Found guilty in absentia of illegally operating an unlicensed bank, Smith fledOhio after being indicted on charges of banking fraud.[26][27]
In 1843, Smith acquired aset of plates from Kinderhook, Illinois, and claimed to be able to interpret the supposedly ancient text recorded on them, briefly summarizing their content. In reality, the Kinderhook plates were a 19th century hoax, and their inscriptions were entirelyasemic.[29]: 131
The dominant and widely accepted view in theLatter Day Saint movement is that the Book of Mormon is a true and accurate account of these ancient American civilizations whose religious history it documents.Joseph Smith, whom most Latter Day Saints believe to have translated the work, stated, "I told the brethren that the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion, and a man would get nearer to God by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book."[31]
The Gospel Topics essays section of the official website ofthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest denomination in the movement,[32] has two essays entitled "Book of Mormon and DNA Studies"[33] and "Book of Mormon Translation".[34] In them, the church affirms the literal historicity of the Book of Mormon. In the essay on DNA studies, the church argues for "a more careful approach to the data," and states that
The conclusions of genetics, like those of any science, are tentative, and much work remains to be done to fully understand the origins of the native populations of the Americas. Nothing is known about the DNA of Book of Mormon peoples, and even if their genetic profile were known, there are sound scientific reasons that it might remain undetected.
Meanwhile, in the essay on the Book of Mormon's translation, the church affirms that "the Book of Mormon came into the world through a series of miraculous events."
Unresolved issues of the book's historicity and the lack of supporting archaeological evidence have led some adherents to adopt the position that the Book of Mormon may have been Smith's creation, but it was nevertheless divinely inspired.[35][36] Between these two views is the view held by some Latter Day Saints that the Book of Mormon is a divine work of a spiritual nature, written in ancient America, but that its purpose is to teach of Christ and not to be used as a guide for history, geology, archaeology, or anthropology.[37][non-primary source needed]
In 1955,Thomas Stuart Ferguson, an attorney and a Latter-day Saint and the founder of theNew World Archaeological Foundation (NWAF), with five years of funding from the LDS Church, began to dig throughout Mesoamerica for evidence of the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims. In a 1961 newsletter, Ferguson predicted that although nothing had been found, the Book of Mormon cities would be found within ten years.[38] In 1972, Christian scholar Hal Hougey wrote to Ferguson questioning the progress made, given the stated timetable in which the cities would be found.[39] Replying to Hougey as well as secular and non-secular requests, Ferguson wrote in a letter dated June 5, 1972: "Ten years have passed . ... I had sincerely hoped that Book-of-Mormon cities would be positively identified within 10 years—and time has proved me wrong in my anticipation."[39]
In 1969, NWAF colleague Dee Green stated, "Just how much the foundation is doing to advance the cause of Book of Mormon archaeology depends on one's point of view about Book of Mormon archaeology."[40] After this article and another six years of fruitless search, Ferguson published a paper in which he concluded, "I'm afraid that up to this point, I must agree with Dee Green, who has told us that to date there is no Book-of-Mormon geography".[41] Referring to his own paper, Ferguson wrote a 1976 letter in which he stated: "The real implication of the paper is that you can't set the Book-of-Mormon geography down anywhere—because it is fictional and will never meet the requirements of the dirt-archeology. I should say—what is in the ground will never conform to what is in the book."[39]
Some non-Mormons attribute the Book of Mormon to the supernatural via mechanisms which are variously described as magical, occultic, psychic, demonic, or diabolical. As early as 1838, one critic argued, "If the Mormonites could work miracles in proof of their book, they would prove it to be, not a revelation from God, but a delusion of the Devil."[42] In the 20th century,Ed Decker propagated similar claims.
^Simon G. Southerton. 2004.Losing a Lost Tribe: Native Americans, DNA, and the Mormon Church (Salt Lake City: Signature Books).
^Southerton 2004, p. xv. "Anthropologists and archaeologists, including some Mormons and former Mormons, have discovered little to support the existence of [Book of Mormon] civilizations. Over a period of 150 years, as scholars have seriously studied Native American cultures and prehistory, evidence of a Christian civilization in the Americas has eluded the specialists... These [Mesoamerican] cultures lack any trace of Hebrew or Egyptian writing, metallurgy, or the Old World domesticated animals and plants described in the Book of Mormon."
^Handbook of North American Indians, pp. 208–18 (Donald K. Grayson, "Late Plestocene Faunal Extinctions") lists horses, elephants and related mammals as extinct
^" the Hill Cumorah. Archaeologically speaking, it is a clean hill. No artifacts, no walls, no trenches, no arrowheads. The area immediately surrounding the hill is similarly clean. Pre-Columbian people did not settle or build here. This is not the place of Mormon’s last stand. We must look elsewhere for that hill."
^The Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City, UT USA: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 1830. p. Testimony of the Three Witnesses, Testimony of the Eight Witnesses.
^Vogel, Dan (2004), Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet, Salt Lake City: Signature Books.
^Brodie 1971, p. 207;Bushman 2005, pp. 339–40;Hill 1977, p. 216 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHill1977 (help) (noting that Smith characterized the warrant as "mob violence ... under the color of legal process").
^Larson, Stan (2004). Quest for the gold plates: Thomas Stuart Ferguson's archaeological search for the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City, UT: Freethinker Press in association with Smith Research Associates. page 68
Dunn, Scott C (May 2002),Vogel, Dan; Metcalf, Brent Lee (eds.), "Automaticity and the Dictation of the Book of Mormon",American Apocrypha: Essays on the Book of Mormon, Salt Lake City, Utah:Signature Books:17–46,ISBN978-1-56085-151-6.
Faulring, Scott H (June 2000),"The Return of Oliver Cowdery",The Disciple as Witness: Essays on Latter-day Saint History and Doctrine in Honor of Richard Lloyd Anderson, Provo, Utah, archived fromthe original on 2007-10-13, retrieved2007-05-19.
Murphy, Thomas (2003),Imagining Lamanites: Native Americans and the Book of Mormon, Seattle: University of Washington,SSRN2177734.
Murphy, Thomas (2004), "Sin, Skin, and Seed: Mistakes of Men in the Book of Mormon",Journal of the John Whitmer Historical Association,25:36–51,SSRN2177700.
Persuitte, David (October 2000),Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon (second ed.), McFarland & Company,ISBN978-0-7864-0826-9.
