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Historical fiction is a literary genre in which afictional plot takes place in thesetting of particular realhistorical events. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for historical fictionliterature, it can also be applied to other types of narrative, includingtheatre,opera,cinema, andtelevision, as well asvideo games andgraphic novels.
An essential element of historical fiction is that it is set in the past and pays attention to the manners, social conditions and other details of the depicted period.[1] Authors also frequently choose to explore notable historical figures in these settings, allowing readers to better understand how these individuals might have responded to their environments. Thehistorical romance usually seeks to romanticize eras of the past. Some subgenres such asalternate history andhistorical fantasy insert intentionally ahistorical orspeculative elements into a novel.
Works of historical fiction are sometimes criticized for lack of authenticity because ofreaderly criticism orgenre expectations for accurate period details. This tension betweenhistorical authenticity andfiction frequently becomes a point of comment for readers and popular critics, whilescholarly criticism frequently goes beyond this commentary, investigating the genre for its other thematic and critical interests.
Historical fiction as a contemporaryWestern literary genre has its foundations in the early-19th-century works of SirWalter Scott and his contemporaries in othernational literatures such as the FrenchmanHonoré de Balzac, the AmericanJames Fenimore Cooper, and later the RussianLeo Tolstoy. However, the melding of historical and fictional elements in individual works of literature has a long tradition in many cultures; both Western traditions (as early asAncient Greek and Latin literature) as well as Eastern, in the form of oral and folk traditions (seemythology andfolklore), which producedepics, novels, plays, and other fictional works describing history for contemporary audiences.
Definitions differ as to what constitutes a historical novel. On the one hand theHistorical Novel Society defines the genre as works "written at least fifty years after the events described",[2] while the critic Sarah Johnson delineates such novels as "set before the middle of the last [20th] century ... in which the author is writing from research rather than personal experience."[3] Then again Lynda Adamson, in her preface to the bibliographic reference workWorld Historical Fiction, states that while a "generally accepted definition" for the historical novel is a novel "about a time period at least 25 years before it was written", some people read novels written in the past, like those ofJane Austen (1775–1817), as if they were historical novels.[4]
Historical fiction sometimes encouraged movements ofromantic nationalism. Walter Scott'sWaverley novels created interest inScottish history and still illuminate it.[citation needed] A series of novels byJózef Ignacy Kraszewski on the history ofPoland popularized the country's history after it had lost its independence in thePartitions of Poland.Henryk Sienkiewicz wrote several immensely popular novels set in conflicts between the Poles and predatoryTeutonic Knights, rebellingCossacks and invadingSwedes. He won the 1905Nobel Prize in literature. He also wrote the popular novelQuo Vadis, which was aboutNero'sRome and theearly Christians and has been adapted several times for film, in1913,1924,1951,2001 to only name the most prominent.Sigrid Undset'sKristin Lavransdatter fulfilled a similar function forNorwegian history; Undset later won aNobel Prize for Literature (1928).[citation needed]
Many early historical novels played an important role in the rise of European popular interest in thehistory of the Middle Ages.Victor Hugo'sThe Hunchback of Notre-Dame often receives credit for fueling the movement to preserve theGothic architecture ofFrance, leading to the establishment of theMonuments historiques, the French governmental authority forhistoric preservation.[5]
The genre of the historical novel has also permitted some authors, such as thePolish novelistBolesław Prus in his sole historical novel,Pharaoh, to distance themselves from their own time and place to gainperspective onsociety and on thehuman condition, or to escape the depredations of thecensor.[6]
In some historical novels, major historic events take place mostly off-stage, while the fictional characters inhabit the world where those events occur.Robert Louis Stevenson'sKidnapped recounts mostly private adventures set against the backdrop of theJacobite troubles inScotland.Charles Dickens'sBarnaby Rudge is set amid theGordon Riots, andA Tale of Two Cities in theFrench Revolution.[citation needed]
In some works, the accuracy of the historical elements has been questioned, as inAlexandre Dumas' 1845 novelQueen Margot.Postmodern novelists such asJohn Barth andThomas Pynchon operate with even more freedom, mixing historical characters and settings with invented history and fantasy, as in the novelsThe Sot-Weed Factor (1960) andMason & Dixon (1997) respectively. A few writers create historical fiction without fictional characters. One example is the seriesMasters of Rome byColleen McCullough.[citation needed]
Historical prose fiction has a long tradition in world literature. Three of theFour Classics ofChinese novels were set in the distant past:Shi Nai'an's 14th-centuryWater Margin concerns 12th-century outlaws;Luo Guanzhong's 14th-centuryRomance of the Three Kingdoms concerns 3rd-century wars which ended theHan dynasty;Wu Cheng'en's 16th-centuryJourney to the West concerns the 7th-century Buddhist pilgrimXuanzang.[7] In addition to those, there was a wealth of historical novels that became popular in the literary circles during the Ming and Qing periods in Chinese history; they includeFeng Menglong'sDongzhou Lieguo Zhi (Chronicles of the Eastern Zhou Kingdoms),Luo Maodeng'sSanbao taijian xiyang ji, Sun Gaoliang'sYu Shaobao cui zhong quanzhuan,Chu Renhuo'sSui Tang yanyi (Romance of the Sui and Tang dynasties),Xiong Damu'sLiang Song Nanbei Zhizhuan (Records of the Two Songs, South and North) andQuan han zhi zhuan,Yang Erzeng'sDong Xi Jin yan yi (Romance of the Eastern and Western Jin dynasties), the anonymousYing Lie Zhuan, and Qian Cai'sThe General Yue Fei, etc.
Classical Greek novelists were also "very fond of writing novels about people and places of the past".[8]The Iliad has been described as historic fiction, since it treats historic events, although its genre is generally consideredepic poetry.[9]Pierre Vidal-Naquet has suggested thatPlato laid the foundations for the historical novel through the myth ofAtlantis contained in his dialoguesTimaeus andCritias.[10]The Tale of Genji (written before 1021) is a fictionalized account of Japanese court life about a century prior and its author asserted that her work could present a "fuller and therefore 'truer'" version of history.[11]
One of the early examples of the historical novel in Europe isLa Princesse de Clèves, a French novel published anonymously in March 1678. It is regarded by many as the beginning of the modern tradition of thepsychological novel and as a great work. Its author generally is held to beMadame de La Fayette. The action takes place between October 1558 and November 1559 at the royal court of Henry II of France. The novel recreates that era with remarkable precision. Nearly every character – except the heroine – is a historical figure. Events and intrigues unfold with great faithfulness to documentary records. In the United Kingdom, the historical novel "appears to have developed" fromLa Princesse de Clèves, "and then via theGothic novel".[12] Another early example isThe Unfortunate Traveller byThomas Nashe, published in 1594 and set during the reign ofKing Henry VIII.[13]
Historical fiction rose to prominence in Europe during the early 19th century as part of theRomantic reaction to theEnlightenment, especially through the influence of the Scottish writerSir Walter Scott, whose works were immensely popular throughout Europe. Among his early European followers we can findWillibald Alexis,Theodor Fontane,Bernhard Severin Ingemann,Miklós Jósika,Mór Jókai,Jakob van Lennep,Carl Jonas Love Almqvist,Victor Rydberg,Andreas Munch,Alessandro Manzoni,Alfred de Vigny,Honoré de Balzac orProsper Mérimée.[14][15][16][17][18]Jane Porter's 1803 novelThaddeus of Warsaw is one of the earliest examples of the historical novel in English and went through at least 84 editions,[19] including translation into French and German.[20][21][22] The first true historical novel in English was in factMaria Edgeworth'sCastle Rackrent (1800).[23]
In the 20th centuryGyörgy Lukács argued that Scott was the first fiction writer who saw history not just as a convenient frame in which to stage a contemporary narrative, but rather as a distinct social and cultural setting.[24] Scott'sScottish novels such asWaverley (1814) andRob Roy (1817) focused upon a middling character who sits at the intersection of various social groups in order to explore the development of society through conflict.[25]Ivanhoe (1820) gained credit for renewing interest in theMiddle Ages.
Many well-known writers from the United Kingdom published historical novels in the mid 19th century, the most notable includeThackeray'sVanity Fair,Charles Dickens'sA Tale of Two Cities,George Eliot'sRomola, andCharles Kingsley'sWestward Ho! andHereward the Wake.The Trumpet-Major (1880) isThomas Hardy's only historical novel, and is set inWeymouth during theNapoleonic Wars,[26] when the town was then anxious about the possibility of invasion by Napoleon.[27]
In the United States, the first historical novelist wasSamuel Woodworth, who wroteThe Champions of American Freedom in 1816.[28]James Fenimore Cooper was better known for his historical novels and was influenced by Scott.[29] His most famous novel isThe Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 (1826), the second book of theLeatherstocking Tales pentalogy.[30]The Last of the Mohicans is set in 1757, during theFrench and Indian War (theSeven Years' War), when France andGreat Britain battled for control of North America. Cooper's chief rival,[31]John Neal, wroteRachel Dyer (1828), the first bound novel about the 17th-centurySalem witch trials.[32]Rachel Dyer also influenced future American fiction set in this period, likeThe Scarlet Letter (1850) byNathaniel Hawthorne[33] which is one of the most famous 19th-century American historical novels.[34] Set in 17th-centuryPuritan Boston, Massachusetts during the years 1642 to 1649, it tells the story ofHester Prynne, who conceives a daughter through an affair and struggles to create a new life ofrepentance and dignity.In French literature, the most prominent inheritor of Scott's style of the historical novel wasBalzac.[35] In 1829 Balzac publishedLes Chouans, a historical work in the manner of Sir Walter Scott.[36] This was subsequently incorporated intoLa Comédie Humaine. The bulk ofLa Comédie Humaine, however, takes place during theBourbon Restoration and theJuly Monarchy, though there are several novels which take place during theFrench Revolution and others which take place of in the Middle Ages or the Renaissance, includingAbout Catherine de Medici andThe Elixir of Long Life.
Victor Hugo'sThe Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831) furnishes another 19th-century example of the romantic-historical novel. Victor Hugo began writingThe Hunchback of Notre-Dame in 1829, largely to make his contemporaries more aware of the value of theGothic architecture, which was neglected and often destroyed to be replaced by new buildings, or defaced by replacement of parts of buildings in a newer style.[37] The action takes place in 1482 and the title refers to theNotre Dame Cathedral in Paris, on which the story is centered.Alexandre Dumas also wrote several popular historical fiction novels, includingThe Count of Monte Cristo andThe Three Musketeers.George Saintsbury stated: "Monte Cristo is said to have been at its first appearance, and for some time subsequently, the most popular book in Europe."[38] This popularity has extended into modern times as well. The book was "translated into virtually all modern languages and has never been out of print in most of them. There have been at least twenty-nine motion pictures based on it ... as well as several television series, and many movies [have] worked the name 'Monte Cristo' into their titles."[39]
Tolstoy'sWar and Peace offers an example of 19th-century historical fiction used to critique contemporary history. Tolstoy read the standard histories available in Russian and French about theNapoleonic Wars, and used the novel to challenge those historical approaches. At the start of the novel's third volume, he describes his work as blurring the line between fiction and history, in order to get closer to the truth.[40] The novel is set 60 years before it was composed, and alongside researching the war through primary and secondary sources, he spoke with people who had lived through war during theFrench invasion of Russia in 1812; thus, the book is also, in part,ethnography fictionalized.[40]
The Charterhouse of Parma byMarie-Henri Beyle (Stendhal) is an epic retelling of the story of an Italian nobleman who lives through the Napoleonic period in Italian history. It includes a description of theBattle of Waterloo by the principal character. Stendhal fought with Napoleon and participated in theFrench invasion of Russia.
The Betrothed (1827) byAlessandro Manzoni has been called the most famous and widely read novel of the Italian language.[41]The Betrothed was inspired by Walter Scott'sIvanhoe but, compared to its model, shows some innovations (two members of the lower class as principal characters, the past described without romantic idealization, an explicitly Christian message), somehow forerunning the realistic novel of the following decades.[42] Set in northern Italy in 1628, during the oppressive years under Spanish rule, it is sometimes seen as a veiled attack on Austria, which controlled the region at the time the novel was written.
The critical and popular success ofThe Betrothed gave rise to a crowd of imitations and, in the age ofunification, almost every Italian writer tried his hand at the genre; novels now almost forgotten, likeMarco Visconti byTommaso Grossi (Manzoni's best friend) orEttore Fieramosca byMassimo D'Azeglio (Manzoni's son-in-law), were the best-sellers of their time. Many of these authors, such asNiccolò Tommaseo,Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi and D'Azeglio himself, were patriots and politicians too, and in their novels, the veiled politic message of Manzoni became explicit (the hero ofEttore Fieramosca fights to defend the honor of the Italian soldiers, mocked by some arrogant Frenchmen). In them, the narrative talent not equaled the patriotic passion, and their novels, full of rhetoric and melodramatic excesses, are today barely readable as historical documents. A significant exception isThe Confessions of an Italian byIppolito Nievo, an epic about theVenetian republic's fall and theNapoleonic age, told with satiric irony and youthful brio (Nievo wrote it when he was 26 years old).
In Arabic literature, the Lebanese writerJurji Zaydan (1861–1914) was the most prolific novelist of this genre. He wrote 23 historical novels between 1889 and 1914. His novels played an important in shaping the collective consciousness of modern Arabs during theNahda period and educated them about their history.The Fleeing Mamluk (1891),The Captive of the Mahdi Pretender (1892), andVirgin of Quraish (1899) are some of his nineteenth-century historical novels.
A major 20th-century example of this genre is the German authorThomas Mann'sBuddenbrooks (1901). This chronicles the decline of a wealthy north German merchant family over the course of four generations, incidentally portraying the manner of life and mores of theHanseaticbourgeoisie in the years from 1835 to 1877. Mann drew deeply from the history of his own family, theMann family ofLübeck, and their milieu. This was Mann's first novel, and with the publication of the 2nd edition in 1903,Buddenbrooks became a major literary success. The work led to aNobel Prize in Literature for Mann in 1929; although the Nobel award generally recognizes an author's body of work, the Swedish Academy's citation for Mann identified "his great novelBuddenbrooks" as the principal reason for his prize.[43] Mann also wrote, between 1926 and 1943, a four-part novelJoseph and His Brothers. In it Mann retells the familiar biblical stories ofGenesis, fromJacob toJoseph (chapters 27–50), setting it in the historical context of the reign ofAkhenaten (1353–1336 BC) inancient Egypt.
In the same era,Lion Feuchtwanger was one of the most popular and accomplished writers of historical novels, with publications between the 1920s and 1950s. His reputation began with the bestselling work,Jud Süß (1925), set in the eighteenth century, as well as historical novels written primarily in exile in France and California, including most prominently theJosephus trilogy set in Ancient Rome (1932 / 1935 / 1942),Goya (1951), and his novelRaquel: The Jewess of Toledo - set in Medieval Spain.
Robert Graves of Britain wrote several popular historical novels, includingI, Claudius,King Jesus,The Golden Fleece andCount Belisarius.John Cowper Powys wrote two historical novels set in Wales,Owen Glendower (1941)[44] andPorius (1951). The first deals with the rebellion of the Welsh PrinceOwain Glyndŵr (AD 1400–16), whilePorius takes place during the Dark Ages, in AD 499, just before theAnglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. Powys suggests parallels with these historical periods and Britain in the late 1930s and duringWorld War II.[45]
Other significant British novelists includeGeorgette Heyer,Naomi Mitchison andMary Renault. Heyer essentially established thehistorical romance genre and its subgenreRegency romance, which was inspired byJane Austen. To ensure accuracy, Heyer collected reference works and kept detailed notes on all aspects of Regency life. While some critics thought the novels were too detailed, others considered the level of detail to be Heyer's greatest asset; Heyer even recreatedWilliam the Conqueror's crossing into England for her novelThe Conqueror. Naomi Mitchison's finest novel,The Corn King and the Spring Queen (1931), is regarded by some as the best historical novel of the 20th century.[46] Mary Renault is best known for her historical novels set inAncient Greece. In addition to fictional portrayals ofTheseus,Socrates,Plato,Simonides of Ceos andAlexander the Great, she wrote a non-fiction biography of Alexander.The Siege of Krishnapur (1973) byJ. G. Farrell has been described as an "outstanding novel".[47] Inspired by events such as the sieges ofCawnpore andLucknow, the book details the siege of a fictional Indian town, Krishnapur, during theIndian Rebellion of 1857 from the perspective of the town'sBritish residents. The main characters find themselves subject to the increasing strictures and deprivation of the siege, and the absurdity of maintaining the British class system in a town no one can leave becomes a source of comic invention, though the text is serious in intent and tone.[48]
In Welsh literature, the major contributor to the genre in Welsh isWilliam Owen Roberts (b. 1960). His historical novels includeY Pla (1987), set at the time of the Black Death;Paradwys (2001), 18th century, concerning the slave trade; andPetrograd (2008) andParis (2013), concerning the Russian revolution and its aftermath.Y Pla has been much translated, appearing in English asPestilence, andPetrograd andParis have also appeared in English. A contemporary of Roberts' working in English isChristopher Meredith (b. 1954), whoseGriffri (1991) is set in the 12th century and has the poet of a minor Welsh prince as narrator.
Nobel Prize laureateWilliam Golding wrote a number of historical novels.The Inheritors (1955) is set inprehistoric times, and shows "new people" (generally identified withHomo sapiens sapiens) triumphing over a gentler race (generally identified withNeanderthals) by deceit and violence.The Spire (1964) follows the building (and near collapse) of a huge spire onto a medieval cathedral (generally assumed to beSalisbury Cathedral); the spire symbolizing both spiritual aspiration and worldly vanity.The Scorpion God (1971) consists of three novellas, the first set in a prehistoric African hunter-gatherer band (Clonk, Clonk), the second in an ancient Egyptian court (The Scorpion God) and the third in the court of a Roman emperor (Envoy Extraordinary). The trilogyTo the Ends of the Earth, which includes theRites of Passage (1980),Close Quarters (1987), andFire Down Below (1989), describes sea voyages in the early 19th century.Anthony Burgess also wrote several historical novels; his last novel,A Dead Man in Deptford, is about the murder ofChristopher Marlowe in the 16th century.
Though the genre has evolved since its inception, the historical novel remains popular with authors and readers to this day and bestsellers includePatrick O'Brian'sAubrey–Maturin series,Ken Follett'sPillars of the Earth andDorothy Dunnett'sLymond Chronicles. A development in British and Irish writing in the past 25 years has been a renewed interest in theFirst World War. Works includeWilliam Boyd'sAn Ice-Cream War;Sebastian Faulks'Birdsong andThe Girl at the Lion d'Or (concerned with the War's consequences);Pat Barker'sRegeneration Trilogy andSebastian Barry'sA Long Long Way.
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American Nobel laureateWilliam Faulkner's novelAbsalom, Absalom! (1936) is set before, during and after theAmerican Civil War.Kenneth Roberts wrote several books set around the events of the American Revolution, of whichNorthwest Passage (1937),Oliver Wiswell (1940) andLydia Bailey (1947) all became best-sellers in the1930s and1940s. The following American authors have also written historical novels in the 20th century:Gore Vidal,John Barth,Norman Mailer,E. L. Doctorow andWilliam Kennedy.[49]Thomas Pynchon's historical novelMason & Dixon (1997) tells the story of the two English surveyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, who were charged with marking the boundary betweenPennsylvania andMaryland in the 18th century.[50] More recently there have been works such asNeal Stephenson'sBaroque Cycle, and Grant Maierhofer'sTraumnovelle, which imagines the life of Anatoli Bugorski, around the incident wherein he unwittingly stuck his head inside of a particle accelerator in 1978.
In Italy, the tradition of historical fiction has flourished in the modern age, the nineteenth century in particular having caught writers' interests. Southern Italian novelists likeGiuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa (The Leopard),Francesco Iovine (Lady Ava),Carlo Alianello (The Heritage of the Prioress) and more recentlyAndrea Camilleri (The Preston Brewer) retold the events of theItalian Unification, at times overturning its traditionally heroic and progressive image. The conservativeRiccardo Bacchelli inThe Devil at the Long Point and the communistVasco Pratolini inMetello described, from ideologically opposite points of view, the birth ofItalian Socialism. Bacchelli also wroteThe Mill on the Po, a patchworksaga of a family of millers from the time ofNapoleon to theFirst World War, one of the most epic novels of the last century.
In 1980,Umberto Eco achieved international success withThe Name of the Rose, a novel set in an Italian abbey in 1327 readable as a historical mystery, as an allegory of Italy during theYears of Lead, and as an erudite joke. Eco's work, like Manzoni's preceding it, relaunched Italian interest in historical fiction. Many novelists who till then had preferred the contemporary novel tried their hand at stories set in previous centuries. Among them wereFulvio Tomizza (The Evil Coming from North, about theReformation),Dacia Maraini (The Silent Duchess, about the female condition in the eighteenth century),Sebastiano Vassalli (The Chimera, about awitch hunt),Ernesto Ferrero (N) andValerio Manfredi (The Last Legion).
Fani Popova–Mutafova (1902–1977) was a Bulgarian author who is considered by many to have been the best-selling Bulgarian historical fiction author ever.[51] Her books sold in record numbers in the 1930s and the early 1940s.[51] However, she was eventually sentenced to seven years of imprisonment by the Bulgarian communist regime because of some of her writings celebratingHitler, and though released after only eleven months for health reasons, was forbidden to publish anything between 1943 and 1972.[52]Stoyan Zagorchinov (1889–1969) also a Bulgarian writer, author of "Last Day, God's Day" trilogy and "Ivaylo", continuing the tradition in the Bulgarian historical novel, led byIvan Vazov.Yana Yazova (1912–1974) also has several novels that can be considered historical as "Alexander of Macedon", her only novel on non-Bulgarian thematic, as well as her trilogy "Balkani".Vera Mutafchieva (1929–2009) is the author of historical novels which were translated into 11 languages.[53]Anton Donchev (1930–) is an old living author, whose first independent novel,Samuel's Testimony, was published in 1961. His second book,Time of Parting, which dealt with the Islamization of the population in the Rhodopes during the XVII century was written in 1964. The novel was adapted in the serial movie "Time of Violence", divided into two parts with the subtitles ("The Threat" and "The Violence") by 1987 by the director Lyudmil Staykov. In June 2015, "Time of Violence" was chosen as the most beloved film of Bulgarian viewers in "Laced Shoes of Bulgarian Cinema", a large-scale consultation with the audience ofBulgarian National Television.[54]
One of the best known Scandinavian historical novels isSigrid Undset'sKristin Lavransdatter (1920–1922) set in medieval Norway. For this trilogy Undset was awarded theNobel Prize in Literature in 1928.[55]Johannes V. Jensen's trilogyKongens fald (1900–1901, "The Fall of the King"), set in 16th century Denmark, has been called "the finest historical novel in Danish literature".[56] The epic historical novel seriesDen lange rejse (1908–1921, "The Long Journey") is generally regarded as Jensen's masterpiece and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1944 partly on the strength of it.[57] The Finnish writerMika Waltari is known for the historical novelThe Egyptian (1945).[58] Faroes–Danish writerWilliam Heinesen wrote several historical novels, most notablyDet gode håb (1964, "Fair Hope") set in theFaroe Islands in 17th century.[59]
Historical fiction has long been a popular genre in Sweden, especially since the 1960s a huge number of historical novels has been written. Nobel laureatesEyvind Johnson andPär Lagerkvist wrote acclaimed historical novels such asReturn to Ithaca (1946) andBarabbas (1950).Vilhelm Moberg'sRide This Night (1941) is set in 16th centurySmåland and his widely read novel seriesThe Emigrants tells the story of Småland emigrants to the United States in the 19th century.Per Anders Fogelström wrote a hugely popular series of five historical novels set in his native Stockholm beginning withCity of My Dreams (1960). Other writers of historical fiction in Swedish literature includeSara Lidman,Birgitta Trotzig,Per Olov Enquist andArtur Lundkvist.[60]
The historical novel was quite popular in 20th centuryLatin American literature, including works such asThe Kingdom of This World (1949) byAlejo Carpentier,I, the Supreme (1974) byAugusto Roa Bastos,Terra Nostra (1975) byCarlos Fuentes,News from the Empire (1987) byFernando del Paso,The Lightning of August (1964) byJorge Ibargüengoitia,The War of the End of the World (1981) byMario Vargas Llosa andThe Autumn of the Patriarch (1975) byGabriel García Marquez. Other writers of historical fiction includeAbel Posse,Antonio Benitez Rojo,João Ubaldo Ribeiro,Jorge Amado,Homero Aridjis.[61]
In the first decades of the 21st century, an increased interest for historical fiction has been noted. One of the most successful writers of historical novels isHilary Mantel. Other writers of historical fiction includePhilippa Gregory,Bernard Cornwell,Sarah Waters,Ken Follett,George Saunders,Shirley Hazzard andJulie Orringer.[62][63] The historical novelThe Books of Jacob set in 18th century Poland has been praised as themagnum opus by the2018 Nobel Prize in Literature laureateOlga Tokarczuk.[64]
A 20th-century variant of the historical novel is documentary fiction, which incorporates "not only historical characters and events, but also reports of everyday events" found in contemporary newspapers.[65] Examples of this variant form of historical novel includeU.S.A. (1938), andRagtime (1975) byE.L. Doctorow.[65]
Memoirs of Hadrian by the Belgian-born French writerMarguerite Yourcenar is about the life and death ofRoman EmperorHadrian. First published in France in French in 1951 asMémoires d'Hadrien, the book was an immediate success, meeting with enormous critical acclaim.[66]Margaret George has written fictional biographies about historical persons inThe Memoirs of Cleopatra (1997) andMary, called Magdalene (2002). Earlier examples arePeter I (1929–34) byAleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, andI, Claudius (1934) andKing Jesus (1946) byRobert Graves. Other recentbiographical novel series includeConqueror andEmperor byConn Iggulden andCicero Trilogy by Robert Harris.
The gothic novel was popular in the late eighteenth century. Set in the historical past it has an interest in the mysterious, terrifying and haunting.Horace Walpole's 1764 novelThe Castle of Otranto is considered to be an influential work.[67]
Thehistorical mystery or historical whodunit is a subgenre of twoliterary genres, historical fiction andmystery fiction. These works are set in a time period considered historical from the author's perspective, and the central plot involves the solving of a mystery or crime (usually murder). Though works combining these genres have existed since at least the early 20th century, many creditEllis Peters'sCadfael Chronicles (1977–1994) for popularizing what would become known as the historical mystery.[68][69] The increasing popularity and prevalence of this type of fiction in subsequent decades has spawned a distinct subgenre recognized by the publishing industry and libraries.[69][70][71][72]Publishers Weekly noted in 2010 of the genre, "The past decade has seen an explosion in both quantity and quality. Never before have so many historical mysteries been published, by so many gifted writers, and covering such a wide range of times and places."[68] Editor Keith Kahla concurs, "From a small group of writers with a very specialized audience, the historical mystery has become a critically acclaimed, award-winning genre with a toehold on theNew York Times bestseller list."[68]
Since 1999, the BritishCrime Writers' Association has awarded theCWA Historical Dagger award to novels in the genre.[73] TheLeft Coast Crime conference has presented its Bruce Alexander Memorial Historical Mystery award (for mysteries set prior to 1950) since 2004.[74]Romantic themes have also been portrayed, such asDoctor Zhivago byBoris Pasternak andGone with the Wind byMargaret Mitchell. One of the first popular historical romances appeared in 1921, whenGeorgette Heyer publishedThe Black Moth, which is set in 1751. It was not until 1935 that she wrote the first of her signatureRegency novels, set around theEnglish Regency period (1811–1820), when thePrince Regent ruled England in place of his ill father,George III. Heyer's Regency novels were inspired byJane Austen's novels of the late 18th and early 19th century. Because Heyer's writing was set in the midst of events that had occurred over 100 years previously, she includedauthentic period detail in order for her readers to understand.[75] Where Heyer referred to historical events, it was as background detail to set the period, and did not usually play a key role in the narrative. Heyer's characters often contained more modern-day sensibilities, and more conventional characters in the novels would point out the heroine's eccentricities, such as wanting to marry for love.[76]
Some historical novels explore life at sea, includingC. S. Forester'sHornblower series,Patrick O'Brian'sAubrey–Maturin series,Alexander Kent'sThe Bolitho novels,Dudley Pope'sLord Ramage's series, all of which all deal with theNapoleonic Wars. There are also adventure novels with pirate characters likeRobert Louis Stevenson'sTreasure Island (1883),Emilio Salgari'sSandokan (1895–1913) andCaptain Blood (1922) byRafael Sabatini. Recent examples of historical novels about pirates areThe Adventures of Hector Lynch byTim Severin,The White Devil (Белият Дявол) by Hristo Kalchev andThe Pirate Devlin novels by Mark Keating.
Alternate history (also called alternative history, allohistory,[77] althist, or simply A.H.) is asubgenre ofspeculative fiction in which one or morehistorical events have occurred but are resolved differently than in real history.[78][79][80][81] As conjecture based upon historical fact, alternate history stories propose "what if?" scenarios about pivotal events inhuman history, and present outcomes very different from the historical record. Some alternate histories are considered a subgenre ofscience fiction, or historical fiction.
Since the 1950s, as a subgenre of science fiction, some alternative history stories have featured the tropes oftime travel between histories, the psychic awareness of the existence of an alternative universe by the inhabitants of a given universe, and time travel that divides history into varioustimestreams.[82]
Historical fantasy is a category offantasy andgenre of historical fiction that incorporates fantastic elements (such asmagic) into a more "realistic" narrative.[83] There is much crossover with other subgenres of fantasy; those classed asArthurian,Celtic, orDark Ages could just as easily be placed in historical fantasy.[84][85] Stories fitting this classification generally take place prior to the 20th century.
Films of this genre may have plots set inbiblical times orclassical antiquity. They often have plots based very loosely onmythology orlegends of Greek-Roman history, or the surrounding cultures of the same era.
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Time travel is a common theme infiction, mainly since the late 19th century, and has beendepicted in a variety of media, such as literature, television, and film.[86][87]
Theconcept of time travel by mechanical means was popularized inH. G. Wells' 1895 story,The Time Machine.[88][89] In general, time travel stories focus on the consequences of traveling into the past or the future.[88][90][91] The premise for these stories often involves changing history, either intentionally or by accident, and the ways by which altering the past changes the future and creates an altered present or future for the time traveler upon their return.[88][91] In other instances, the premise is that the past cannot be changed or that the future is determined, and the protagonist's actions turn out to be inconsequential or intrinsic to events as they originally unfolded.[92] Some stories focus solely on the paradoxes and alternate timelines that come with time travel, rather than time traveling.[90] They often provide some sort of social commentary, as time travel provides a "necessary distancing effect" that allows science fiction to address contemporary issues in metaphorical ways.[93]Historiographic metafiction combines historical fiction withmetafiction. The term is closely associated withpostmodern literature including writers such asSalman Rushdie andThomas Pynchon.
Several novels by Nobel Prize laureateJosé Saramago are set in historical times includingBaltasar and Blimunda,The Gospel According to Jesus Christ andThe History of the Siege of Lisbon. In a parallel plot set in the 12th and 20th century where history and fiction are constantly overlapping, the latter novel questions the reliability of historical sources and deals with the difference of writing history and fiction.[94]
A prominent subgenre within historical fiction is the children's historical novel. Often following a pedagogical bent, children's historical fiction may follow the conventions of many of the other subgenres of historical fiction. A number of such works include elements ofhistorical fantasy ortime travel to facilitate the transition between the contemporary world and the past in the tradition of children's portal fiction. Sometimes publishers will commission series of historical novels that explore different periods and times. Among the most popular contemporary series include theAmerican Girl novels and theMagic Tree House series. A prominent award within children's historical fiction is theScott O'Dell Award for Historical Fiction.
Historical narratives have also found their way in comics and graphic novels. There arePrehistorical elements injungle comics likeAkim andRahan.Ancient Greece inspiredgraphic novels are300 created byFrank Miller, centered aroundBattle of Thermopylae, andAge of Bronze series byEric Shanower, that retellsTrojan War. Historical subjects can also be found inmanhua comics likeThree Kingdoms andSun Zi's Tactics byLee Chi Ching,Weapons of the Gods byWong Yuk Long as well asThe Ravages of Time byChan Mou. There are also straightSamurai manga series likePath of the Assassin,Vagabond,Rurouni Kenshin andAzumi. Several comics and graphic novels have been produced into anime series or a movie adaptations likeAzumi and300.
Historical drama film stories are based upon historical events and famous people. Somehistorical dramas aredocudramas, which attempt an accurate portrayal of a historical event orbiography, to the degree that the available historical research will allow. Other historical dramas are fictionalized tales that are based on an actual person and their deeds, such asBraveheart, which is loosely based on the 13th-century knightWilliam Wallace's fight forScotland's independence. For films pertaining to the history ofEast Asia,Central Asia, andSouth Asia, there arehistorical drama films set in Asia, also known asJidaigeki in Japan.Wuxia films likeThe Hidden Power of the Dragon Sabre (1984) andCrouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), based on novels byJin Yong andWang Dulu, have also been produced.Zhang Yimou has directed several acclaimedwuxia films likeHero (2002),House of Flying Daggers (2004) andCurse of the Golden Flower (2006). Although largely fictional some wuxia films are considered historical drama.Samurai films likeZatoichi andLone Wolf and Cub series also fall under historical drama umbrella.Peplum films also known as sword-and-sandal, is a genre of largely Italian-made historical or biblical epics (costume dramas) that dominated the Italian film industry from 1958 to 1965. Most pepla featured a superhumanly strong man as the protagonist, such asHercules,Samson,Goliath,Ursus or Italy's own popular folk heroMaciste. These supermen often rescued captive princesses from tyrannical despots and fought mythological creatures. Not all the films were fantasy-based, however. Many featured actual historical personalities such asJulius Caesar,Cleopatra, andHannibal, although great liberties were taken with the storylines. Gladiators, pirates, knights, Vikings, and slaves rebelling against tyrannical kings were also popular subjects. There are alsofilms based on Medieval narratives likeRidley Scott's historical epicsRobin Hood (2010) andKingdom of Heaven (2005) and the subgenredfilms based on the Arthurian legend such asPendragon: Sword of His Father (2008) andKing Arthur (2004).
Many historical narratives have been expanded into television series. Notableancient history inspired TV series include:Rome,Spartacus,Egypt,The Last Kingdom andI Claudius.Tudor England is also a very prominent subject in television series likeThe Tudors,The Virgin Queen andElizabeth I. Programs about theNapoleonic Wars have also been produced, likeSharpe andHornblower. Historicalsoap operas have also been popular, including the Turkish TV seriesThe Magnificent Century andOnce Upon A Time In The Ottoman Empire: Rebellion. Chinese studios have also produced television series likeThe Legend and the Hero, itssequel series,King's War andThe Qin Empire. There have also been produced pureWuxia television series, many based on works byJin Yong likeCondor Trilogy andSwordsman, alsoLu Xiaofeng andChu Liuxiang byGu Long. They have been very popular in China, but largely unnoticed in Western media.
History is one of the three main genres in Westerntheatre alongsidetragedy andcomedy, although it originated, in its modern form, thousands of years later than the other primary genres.[95] For this reason, it is often treated as a subset of tragedy.[96] A play in this genre is known as ahistory play and is based on ahistorical narrative, often set in the medieval or early modern past. History emerged as a distinct genre from tragedy inRenaissance England.[97] The best known examples of the genre are thehistory plays written byWilliam Shakespeare, whose plays still serve to define the genre.[98] Shakespeare wrote numerous history plays, some included in theFirst Folio as histories, and other listed astragedies, or Roman plays. Among the most famous histories areRichard III, andHenry IV, Part 1,Henry IV, Part 2, andHenry V. Other plays that feature historical characters, are the tragedyMacbeth, set in the mid-11th century during the reigns ofDuncan I of Scotland andEdward the Confessor, and the Roman playsCoriolanus,Julius Caesar, andAntony and Cleopatra. Another tragedyKing Lear, is based on Britishlegend, as is theromancCymbeline, King of Britain, which is set in Ancient Britain.
Other playwrights contemporary to Shakespeare, such asChristopher Marlowe, also dramatized historical topics.[98] Marlowe wroteEdward the Second which deals with the deposition of KingEdward II by his barons and the Queen, who resent the undue influence the king's favourites have in court and state affairs, andThe Massacre at Paris, which dramatizes the events of theSaint Bartholomew's Day Massacre in France in 1572.[99] Marlowe'sTamburlaine the Great (1587 or 1588) is a play in two parts, loosely based on the life of theCentral Asian emperor,Timur "the lame".
History plays also appear elsewhere in other western literature. The German authorsGoethe andSchiller wrote a number of historical plays, including Goethe'sEgmont (1788), which is set in the 16th century, and is heavily influenced by Shakespearean tragedy, and Schiller'sMary Stuart, which depicts the last days ofMary, Queen of Scots (1800). This play formed the basis forDonizetti's operaMaria Stuarda (1834). Beethovenwrote incidental music forEgmont.
Later Irish authorGeorge Bernard Shaw wrote several histories, includingCaesar and Cleopatra (1898) andSaint Joan, which based on the life and trial ofJoan of Arc. Published in 1924, not long after the canonization of Joan of Arc by the Roman Catholic Church, the play dramatises what is known of her life based on the substantial records of her trial. One of the most famous 20th-century history plays isThe Life of Galileo byBertolt Brecht which dramatises the latter period of the life ofGalileo Galilei, the greatItaliannatural philosopher, who was persecuted by theRoman Catholic Church for the promulgation of his scientific discoveries; for details, seeGalileo affair. The play embraces such themes as the conflict betweendogmatism andscientific evidence, as well as interrogating the values of constancy in the face of oppression.
More recently British dramatistHoward Brenton has written several histories. He gained notoriety for his playThe Romans in Britain, first staged at theNational Theatre in October 1980, which drew parallels between the Roman invasion of Britain in 54BC and the contemporary British military presence inNorthern Ireland. Its concerns with politics were, however, overshadowed by controversy surrounding a rape scene. Brenton also wroteAnne Boleyn a play on the life ofAnne Boleyn, which premiered atShakespeare's Globe in 2010. Anne Boleyn is portrayed as a significant force in the political and religious in-fighting at court and a furtherer of the cause ofProtestantism in her enthusiasm for theTyndale Bible.[100]
One of the first operas to use historical events and people isClaudio Monteverdi'sL'incoronazione di Poppea, which was first performed inVenice during the 1643 carnival season. it describes how Poppaea, mistress of the Romanemperor Nero, is able to achieve her ambition and be crowned empress. The opera was revived in Naples in 1651, but was then neglected until the rediscovery of the score in 1888, after which it became the subject of scholarly attention in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the 1960s, the opera has been performed and recorded many times.George Frederick Handel also wrote several operas based on historical characters, includingGiulio Cesare (1724),Tamerlano (1724) andRodelinda (1725).
Historical subjects for operas also developed during the 19th century. Usually with 4 or 5 acts, they are large-scale casts and orchestras, and spectacular staging. Several operas byGaspare Spontini,Luigi Cherubini, andGioachino Rossini can be regarded as precursors to Frenchgrand opera. These include Spontini'sLa vestale (1807) andFernand Cortez (1809, revised 1817), Cherubini'sLes Abencérages (1813), and Rossini'sLe siège de Corinthe (1827) andMoïse et Pharaon (1828). All of these have some of the characteristics of size and spectacle that are normally associated with French grand opera. Another important forerunner wasIl crociato in Egitto byMeyerbeer, who eventually became the acknowledged king of the grand opera genre. Amongst the most important opera composers on historical topics areGiuseppe Verdi, andRichard Wagner.
Russian composers also wrote operas based on historical figures, includingBoris Godunov byModest Mussorgsky (1839–1881), which was composed between 1868 and 1873, and is considered his masterpiece.[101][102] Its subjects are the Russian rulerBoris Godunov, who reigned asTsar (1598 to 1605). Equally famous isAlexander Borodin'sPrince Igor, the libretto for which the composer developed from the Ancient RussianepicThe Lay of Igor's Host, which recounts the campaign ofRus princeIgor Svyatoslavich against the invadingCuman ("Polovtsian") tribes in 1185.[103]
Historical reenactment is an educational or entertainment activity in which people follow a plan to recreate aspects of a historical event or period. This may be as narrow as a specific moment from a battle, such as the reenactment ofPickett's Charge presented during theGreat Reunion of 1913, or as broad as an entire period, such asRegency reenactment or The 1920s Berlin Project.
TheMarxist literary critic, essayist, and social theoristGyörgy Lukács wrote extensively on the aesthetic and political significance of the historical novel. In 1937'sDer historische Roman, published originally in Russian, Lukács developed critical readings of several historical novels by various authors, includingGottfried Keller,Charles Dickens, andGustave Flaubert. He interprets the advent of the "genuinely" historical novel at the beginning of the 19th century in terms of two developments, or processes. The first is the development of a specific genre in a specific medium—the historical novel's unique stylistic and narrative elements. The second is the development of a representative, organic artwork that can capture the fractures, contradictions, and problems of the particular productive mode of its time (i.e., developing, early, entrenchedcapitalism).
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[...] the time travel motif also has an ideological function because it literally provides the necessary distancing effect that science fiction needs to be able to metaphorically address the most pressing issues and themes that concern people in the present.
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