 The frontispiece to an illustrated 1644 edition, Amsterdam | |
| Author | Theophrastus |
|---|---|
| Subject | Botany |
Publication date | c. 350 BC – c. 287 BC |
| Publication place | Ancient Greece |
| Pages | 10 books, 9 surviving |
Theophrastus'sEnquiry into Plants orHistoria Plantarum (Ancient Greek:Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία,Peri phyton historia) was, along with his mentorAristotle'sHistory of Animals,Pliny the Elder'sNatural History andDioscorides'sDe materia medica, one of the most important books ofnatural history written inancient times, and like them it was influential in theRenaissance. Theophrastus looks at plant structure, reproduction and growth; the varieties of plant around the world; wood; wild and cultivated plants; and their uses. Book 9 in particular, on themedicinal uses of plants, is one of the firstherbals, describing juices, gums andresins extracted from plants, and how to gather them.
Historia Plantarum was written some time between c. 350 BC and c. 287 BC in ten volumes, of which nine survive. In the book, Theophrastus described plants by their uses, and attempted abiological classification based on how plants reproduced, a first in thehistory of botany. He continually revised the manuscript, and it remained in an unfinished state on his death. The condensed style of the text, with its many lists of examples, indicate that Theophrastus used the manuscript as the working notes for lectures to his students, rather than intending it to be read as a book.
Historia Plantarum was first translated intoLatin byTheodorus Gaza; the translation was published in 1483.Johannes Bodaeus published a frequently cited folio edition in Amsterdam in 1644, complete with commentaries and woodcut illustrations. The first English translation was made by SirArthur Hort and published in 1916.
TheEnquiry into Plants is in Hort's parallel text a book of some 400 pages of originalGreek, consisting of about 100,000 words. It was originally organised into ten books, of which nine survive, though it is possible the surviving text represents all the material, rearranged into nine books rather than the original ten.[1] Along with his other survivingbotanical work,On the Causes of Plants,Enquiry into Plants was an important influence onscience in the middle ages. On the strength of these books, the first scientific inquiries into plants and one of thefirst systems of plant classification,Linnaeus calledTheophrastus "the father of botany".[2]
Theophrastus's two plant books have similar titles to two books on animals by his mentorAristotle; Roger French concludes that he was effectively "doing aperipatetic exercise"[3] in identifying regularities in and differences between plants, in the manner of Aristotle with animals. However, he went beyond Aristotle in describing seeds as parts of the plant; Aristotle, French argues, would never have described semen or embryos as parts of an animal.[3]
Theophrastus made use of a variety of sources for the book, includingDiocles on drugs and medicinal plants. Theophrastus claims to have gathered information from drug-sellers (pharmacopolai) and root-cutters (rhizotomoi).[4] Plants described includepoppy (mēkōn),hemlock (kōnion),wild lettuce (thridakinē), andmandrake (mandragoras).[4]
The surviving texts are the notes that Theophrastus used in teaching, and they were continually revised.[2] He referred to earlier books in the Lyceum library includingDemocritus, sometimes preserving fragments of books otherwise lost.[2] He mentions about 500 species of plant.[2]
TheEnquiry into Plants (along with theCauses of Plants) was first translated into Latin byTheodore Gaza by 1454, circulated in manuscript, and then published atTreviso in 1483.[a] In its original Greek it first appeared from the press ofAldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a single corrupt manuscript which has since been lost.[b]Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, theCodex Urbinas in theVatican Library, which was not made known toJohann Gottlob Schneider, who with H. F. Link made the first modern critical edition,Leipzig 1818–1821, and the excerpts in theCodex Parisiensis in theBibliothèque nationale de France.[5]
A good and often-cited edition is that ofJohannes Bodaeus, published in Amsterdam in 1644. Thisfolio edition has the Greek and Latin texts printed in parallel, along with commentaries on the text byJulius Caesar Scaliger and Robert Constantine, and woodcut illustrations of plants.[2] SirWilliam Thiselton-Dyer described the commentary as "botanically monumental and fundamental".[6]
The first translation into English, with an introduction and parallel Greek and English texts, was made by Sir Arthur Hort (1864–1935). It was published simultaneously byWilliam Heinemann in London andG. P. Putnam's Sons in New York, as a two-volume bookTheophrastus Enquiry into Plants and minor works on odours and weather signs in 1916.[7]
Three older German editions with commentaries are described by Hort as indispensable: Schneider and Link's 1818–1821 edition already mentioned;Kurt Polycarp Joachim Sprengel's 1822 edition from Halle; andChristian Friedrich Heinrich Wimmer's 1842 edition fromBreslau.[8]
Enquiry into Plants classifies plants according to how theyreproduce, their localities, their sizes, and their practical uses including as foods, juices, and herbs.[9]
The books describe the natural history of plants as follows:[10]
Theophrastus toursplant anatomy, including leaves (phylla), flowers, catkins, fruits (karpoi), seeds, roots (rhizai), and wood.
Plants are classified astrees,shrubs,herbaceous perennials, and annualherbs (poai); these divisions are acknowledged to be rough and ready, as is the division into wild or cultivated, whereas the aquatic/terrestrial division appeared to be natural. Theophrastus notes that some plants are irregular, while thesilver fir has branches always opposite each other and other plants have branches equally spaced or in rows.Figs have the longest roots, while thebanyan sends roots down from the shoots, forming a circle of roots at a distance all round the trunk.
Theophrastus writes that plants cangrow spontaneously, fromseed, orfrom vegetative parts of the plant. Plants with bulbs grow from those. Soil and climate influence growth. Some plants change into others unless care is taken, sobergamot turns intomint, andwheat turns intodarnel. He reports that ifcelery is trodden after sowing, it will become curly, and that figs are the easiest trees to propagate, whereas date palms have to be grown from several seeds together, and they likeirrigation, dung, salt (at the age of one year) and being transplanted. Other kinds of palm have different habits and fruits. He notes thatgall insects come out of wild figs and make the cultivated figs swell, which helps to prevent premature shedding of the fruit. The male spathe of thedate palm is cut off and brought to the female, andits dust is shaken over the female tree to make it fruit.[11]
Theophrastus asserts that all wild trees grow from seed or from roots. He mentions that thephilosophers spoke of spontaneous generation, as whenAnaxagoras claims the air contains the seeds of every plant, whereasDiogenes believed plants arose when water mixed with earth. In places likeCrete, Theophrastus writes that native plants spring up if the ground is simply disturbed, and that wild trees are generally more vigorous than cultivated ones, give fruit later, and like cold and hilly terrain. He asserts that trees which can grow both on hill and plain grow better and taller when grown on the plain.
The book offers numerous examples of Theophrastus's note-like style, with lists of species interspersed among the general explanations. For example, "Now among wild trees those are evergreen which were mentioned before, silver-fir fir 'wild pine' box andrachne yew Phoenician cedar terebinth alaternus hybrid arbutus bay holm-oak holly cotoneaster kermes-oak tamarisk; but all the others shed their leaves ..."[12]
Theophrastus describes trees and shrubs from different places and habitats, as for instance a sheltered part of the Arcadia region near Krane in a deep valley where the sun never reaches, and the silver-fir trees are exceptionally tall. He looks into the plants ofEgypt,Libya, Asia, northern regions, and thenaquatic plants from the Mediterranean,wetlands especially in Egypt,reeds andrushes. He also considers factors that limit the life of plants including diseases and weather damage.
Theophrastus describes the wood of different trees, the effects of climate on wood, of knots and 'coiling' in timber and other differences in quality. He discusses which woods to use for specific purposes such as forcarpentry,shipbuilding and for building houses, and the making ofcharcoal. The most useful trees are said to be silver-fir and fir, and they have the best wood in the largest sizes; the silver-fir is softer than the fir, and its wood has layers like an onion, and is made entirely of these layers. The strongest and most attractive wood is smooth, without knots. InSyria,terebinth wood is dark and close-grained, Theophrastus reports, and used both for the handles of daggers and, turned on the lathe, for making cups. He claims that the hardest timber is of oak andholm oak, while elm warps the least, so it is used for the pivots and sockets of doors, which must be straight. The wood of palms is light and soft like cork-oak, but is tougher and less brittle, so it is good for carving images. Timber from the cedar, ebony, box, olive, oak and sweet chestnut keeps well and resists decay. He asserts thatTamarisk wood from Greece is weak, but from the Arabian island of Tylos it is as strong as kermes-oak. The wood of oak and the knotted parts of fir and silver-fir are described as the hardest to work. Ships are generally made of silver-fir, fir, and Syrian cedar; in Cyprus they useAleppo pine which is better than the fir that grows there. Theophrastus records that in the lowlands of Italy (the country of the Latins) they grow bay, myrtle and excellent beech trees long enough for the whole length of a ship.
Theophrastus classifies undershrubs as spiny, such asthistle,eryngo andsafflower, and spineless, such asmarjoram,savory,sage,horehound, andbalm. He notes that some have a hollow stem, such asdeadly nightshade andhemlock. Roses, he writes, vary in number of petals, roughness of bark, colour and scent; they have five, twelve, twenty or more petals, and those with the sweetest scent come from Cyrene, and are used for making perfume. The times of flowering of different species are listed.
Theophrastus reports thatcabbage,radish andturnip are sown in July after thesummer solstice, along withbeet,lettuce,mustard andcoriander.Leeks, celery,onion andorache are sown in January.Cucumber,gourds,basil,purslane and savory, in contrast, he writes, are sown in April. Ripe seeds do not germinate at once but wait for the right time. He asserts that all the herbs can be grown from seed, whilerue, marjoram and basil can be raised from cuttings, and garlic, onion and other bulbs are grown from their roots. All the flowers of a herb appear at one time, except for basil which puts out a series of flowers starting low on the plant. Cumin has the most fruits, but it is said you have to curse and insult the plant to get a good crop. Theophrastus describes varieties of some herbs, for instance that the white lettuce is sweetest and tenderest, while there are many kinds of onion, with Sardian, Cnidian, Samothracian and Ascalonian varieties from those regions. Garlic is said to be planted close to the solstice; the Cyprian variety is largest and is used in salads. All herbs except rue are said to like dung. Of the wild herbs, Theophrastus reports that some such ascat's ear are edible, whereas others likedandelion are too bitter to be worth eating.
Theophrastus groups together thecereals and the legumes (peas and beans), and includes millet and other many-seeded plants like sesame also. These can only be grown from seed. They can be sown early, as with wheat, barley and beans, or in spring after theequinox, for plants likelentils, tares and peas.Vetch and chickpeas can, he reports, be sown at either season. When sprouting, beans form a shape like a penis, from which the root grows down and the leafy stem upwards. Wheat and barley flower for four or five days, whereas the legumes flower for much longer. Theophrastus reports that these plants grow differently according to the region, so for instance crops inSalamis appear earlier than those elsewhere inAttica. Wheat varieties are recorded as being named for their localities; they differ in colour, size, growth habit and food value. In a place near Bactra in Asia the wheat grains are said to grow as big as the stone of an olive, whereas pulses do not in Theophrastus's view vary to the same extent.
This book is one of the firstherbals, admittedly much simpler than those ofNicander,Dioscorides orGalen.[4] Theophrastus covers juices (chylismos),gums, andresins, the uses of some hundreds ofplants as medicines, and how to gather them.
Resin is gathered by tapping trees including silver-fir and Aleppo pine; the best resin is from the terebinth. OnMount Ida in Crete the people gather pitch fromCorsican pine and Aleppo pine. Gums such asfrankincense,myrrh andbalsam ofMecca are gathered either by cutting the plant or naturally. Frankincense and myrrh are gathered into the closely guarded temple of theSabaeans.Cassia andcinnamon also come from theArabian peninsula.
Drug collectors have certain traditions which may be accurate or may be exaggerated. Precautions are rightly taken when gathering hellebore, and men cannot dig it up for long; whereas the story that thepeony must be dug up at night for fear that awoodpecker will watch and cause the man arectal prolapse is a mere superstition. Similarly the idea that you must mark three circles around a mandrake plant with a sword, and speak of the mysteries of love while cutting it, is just far-fetched.
Apart from Greece itself, medicinal plants are produced in Italy inTyrrhenia, asAeschylus records, andLatium; and in Egypt, which asHomer mentions is the source of the drugnepenthes that makes men forget sorrow and passion. The best hemlock comes from Susa, whiledittany, useful in childbirth, comes only from Crete. Wolfsbane comes from Crete andZakynthos; it can be made into a poison that causes death a year or more after taking it, and there is no antidote. Hemlock is a poison which brings a painless death; pepper and frankincense are antidotes for it.Strykhnos causes madness, butoleander root in wine makes people gentle and cheerful. Birthwort has many uses including for bruises on the head, snakebite, and prolapse of the uterus.
Pliny the Elder made frequent use of Theophrastus, including his books on plants, in hisNatural History; the only authors he cited more often wereDemocritus andVarro.[3]
John Scarborough comments that "The list of herbals assembled inHistoria Plantarum IX became the direct ancestor of all later drug treatises in antiquity, and many traces of Theophrastus's (and Diocles's) originalobservations survive in theMateria Medica of Dioscorides. The analysis of the various plants and plant derivatives shows that the Greekrhizotomoi and drug-vendors had collected much valuable informationon the medical employment of plants, and Theophrastus invented a format for this type of information that would be followed after his own time."[4]
Theophrastus was barely known to western Europe in theMiddle Ages; his writings were popularized there only in the 15th century,[13] when Greek manuscripts in theVatican, possibly, like many other ancient Vatican Greek manuscripts, brought from theByzantine Empire during its fall to the Ottomans in the 15th century, were translated into Latin by theByzantine Greek refugeeTheodorus Gaza at the request ofpope Nicholas V. The effect was to stimulateRenaissance scholars to restart the exploration of plant taxonomy.[14] The science ofbotany was founded as these scholars engaged with the accounts of plants, and especially of theirmedicinal uses, together with a newly critical reaction to mediaevalpharmacology, which was based on unthinking acceptance of theNatural History ofPliny the Elder and theDe Materia Medica of Dioscorides.[15] By the same token, however, Theophrastus (andAristotle) fell abruptly out of use around 1550, as classical botany and zoology were effectively assimilated into Renaissance thought in the form of illustrated encyclopedias—which were still heavily based on classical writings.[16]Andrea Cesalpino made use of Theophrastus in his philosophical book on plants,De Plantis (1583).[17] The Italian scholarJulius Caesar Scaliger's accurate and detailed commentaries on theHistoria Plantarum were published in Leyden in 1584, after his death.[18]
TheChicago Botanic Garden describesHistoria Plantarum as the "first great botanical work" of Theophrastus, "the first real botanist"; it states of the 1483 edition printed by Bartolomeo Confalonieri inTreviso that "all taxonomy of plants starts with this modest book", centuries before the moderntaxonomy ofLinnaeus.[19]Anna Pavord observes in her 2005 bookThe Naming of Names that Theophrastus made the first ever classification of plants, and Pliny the Elder, now much better known, used much of his material.[20]
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)| Fields, disciplines | |
|---|---|
| Theories, concepts | |
| Related | |
